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Angkor Wat is a temple complex in honor of the god Vishnu, built by
King Suryavarman II in the first half of the 12th century in the
Angkor region, Siem Reap province in northern Cambodia, in the
vicinity of the Great Lake, where in the 11th-14th centuries there
was an area of the capitals of the Angkor Empire and the
residences of the ancient Khmer kings. In the era of Angkor Wat, the
capital of the ancient Khmers was Yashodharapura.
Angkor Wat
was conceived as the earthly incarnation of the heavenly abode of
Vishnu. Its symbols are five sandstone towers rising above the
temple walls. The towers represent the peaks of Mount Meru, the
center of the universe. The temple complex is surrounded by a wide
rectangular pond, symbolizing the ocean of milk, from which the
elixir of immortality amrit arose.
Angkor Wat was built as a
temple-mountain (prang) - a type of religious building
characteristic of Cambodia. It is a three-tiered truncated pyramid
with towers on top, whose total height reaches 65 m. The temple is
surrounded by a rectangular wall and an artificial pond 1.5 × 1.3
km. The only entrance is located on the west side. The road from the
entrance tower to the temple is framed by parapets decorated with
sculptures of seven-headed nagas. Angkor Wat is a striking example
of an organic combination of architecture and sculptural plasticity.
Bas-reliefs in its design play an important architectonic role.
Particularly noteworthy are the bas-reliefs placed on three tiers of
the district galleries of the temple. They reflect stories from
Hindu mythology, the Ramayana and Mahabharata epics, as well as from
Khmer history. Eight gigantic panels of the first tier with complex
multi-figured compositions, “Churning the Milky Ocean”, “Battle of
Kurukshetra”, etc., occupying an area of 1200 m2, as well as about 2
thousand figures of celestial maidens – apsaras on the walls of the
second tier, received fame.
Radiocarbon analysis of the
remains of charcoal, which served as fuel for domestic hearths,
indicates that the mass settlement of the area around Angkor Wat
occurred in the 11th century. The construction of Angkor Wat began
in the 12th century and continued for several decades. The
construction was accompanied by the creation of a complex system of
water structures and canals that served to accumulate, store and
collect water throughout the year. It is believed that most of the
population left Angkor Wat at the end of the 14th century under the
influence of climate change and the degradation of the water system.
Along with the Athenian Parthenon, the Mughal Taj Mahal and the
Javanese Borobudur, Angkor Wat is one of the most grandiose
monumental structures on Earth. The famous temple complex is visited
annually by over 2 million tourists. Angkor Wat represents the Khmer
civilization and has been featured on the coat of arms and national
flag of Cambodia since 1863. As part of the Angkor ensemble, Angkor
Wat is included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.
In 1995,
the Cambodian authorities created the APSARA Authority (English) - a
government agency responsible for research, protection and
conservation of the Angkor archaeological park.
In 2014,
Google Corporation took over a million photos of Angkor as part of
the Google Street View project. As a result, 90 thousand panoramic
images of over 100 temples were created.
The name “Angkor” comes from the Sanskrit word ‘Nagar’, which has
the only meaning in this language - “city”. In Khmer it is
pronounced ‘noko’ (Khmer.: នគរ - “empire, kingdom, country, city,
city-state”), but due to the metathesis in colloquial speech it has
turned into ‘ongkoa’. The word “ongkoa” is consonant with the
concept of a crop that is close to peasants and literally translates
as “raw, threshed rice” (Khmer.: អង្ករ). As you can see, both
phonetically and in writing it is very difficult to distinguish from
the name of your own “Angkor” or ‘Ongko’ (Khmer.: អង្គរ - “city”,
“capital city”, “Angkor”).
It should be understood that "Angkor" is not a historical name that
is native to this area of the kingdom of Cambodia. It arose much
later, when the local places were long abandoned by the Khmer
rulers, lost their role as the metropolitan region and began to
decline. Nevertheless, people always remained here, therefore,
Angkor for a long time retained the importance of an important
economic center and a large city, which later was reflected in the
toponym. Over the centuries, the reduced common people ‘Noko’
acquired the meaning of a proper name, ‘Ongko’, entrenched in the
name of the architectural park of Angkor (or Ongkor), the city
of Angkor Thom, as well as the temple of Angkor Wat.
To this it is necessary to add that in the Khmer language there are
various concepts for the city, the main city of the province or
region, the metropolis, as well as the capital city and, even more,
the capital of the kingdom and a democratic state. So, referring to
Phnom Penh, the Khmers often say simply ’tikrong’ (Khmer.: ទីក្រុង),
that is, “the city that is the place of the king”, its “throne
city”. Unlike the original ‘noko’, the word ‘Ongko’ has the meaning
of “throne city”, but it is used exclusively in relation to the
ancient Khmer capitals. That is, “Ongko” may not be all, but just
one of the former capitals of “Mohanoko” (Khmer.: មហានគរ), the
“Great Kingdom”, as Cambodia was called in ancient times: Bapnoma
(Angkor Borey), Chenla or the empire of Cambujades ( Angkor Thom).
The word “Wat” goes back to the Pali expression “watthu-arama” (“the
place where the temple was built”), which denoted the sacred land of
the monastery’s monastery, but in many countries of Southeast Asia
(Thailand, Laos, Cambodia) it has long been of broader significance,
referring to any Buddhist monastery, temple or pagoda. In Khmer
‘voat’ (Khmer.: វត្ត) can mean both “temple” and “veneration,
admiration”. Indeed, Angkor Wat is a symbol of Khmer national pride.
In Khmer, the name of the temple of Angkor Wat is pronounced
‘Ongkovoat’ (Khmer.: អង្គរវត្ត). In the vast majority of sources it
is interpreted as a “city-temple”, “city temple” or even “capital
temple”. In fact, since the name “Angkor” was used as a proper name
from the 15th-16th centuries, it does not require translation in the
same way as, for example, the name of the city of Astana, and its
most accurate interpretation is “Angkor Temple” or “Temple of
Angkor”.
Angkor (“Royal [city]”) is considered to be a group of monuments
located in the area of the medieval Khmer capitals of the period of the
Angkor Empire. In its place, since the 9th century, there was the
capital of the Khmer kingdom. At the height of its power in the 11th and
12th centuries, the kingdom included the territories of Cambodia,
southern Vietnam, southern Laos, and parts of Thailand. Angkor was
located in the heart of a huge kingdom, the capital was connected with
small satellite cities by an extensive road network. It is believed that
Angkor was founded by King Jayavarman II in 802. He proclaimed himself
the universal ruler and united the local leaders around him. The
founding of Angkor by Jayavarman II is known from a stone inscription
made hundreds of years after the events described. It is possible that
the early temples on the territory of Angkor were built long before him.
The monuments of Angkor include Mahendraparvata, Yashodharapura and
Angkor Thom. Angkor monuments represent different religious traditions
and architectural styles. The early Angkorian style is represented by
the Saivite Prasat temples on Mount Phnom Kulen, the central temple of
the maiden raja on Mount Phnom Bakheng, the royal temple-tomb of Pre-Rup
(“Inverted Body”), the royal chapel of Phimeanakas (“Air Palace”), and
also unfinished by the temple of Ta-Keo ("Stone Mass"). Experts also
refer to the classical Angkorian style as the Buddhist complexes
Prah-Khan (“Holy Sword”), Neak-Peam (“Curled Nagas”), Alley of the
Giants, the central temple of the Bodhisattva Raja Bayon, the Shaivite
temple Baphuon (“Copper Tower”) and, finally , the Vaishnava temple of
Angkor Wat ("Royal Temple").
The monuments of Angkor are located
in a fertile plain northeast of Tonle Sap ("Great Lake") and not far
from the modern city of Siem Reap. Almost all the capital cities founded
by the rulers of the ancient Khmer kingdom from the end of the 9th to
the middle of the 15th century were founded on the plain. Each ruler
built his capital royal temple in Angkor, usually in the form of a
stepped pyramid. In accordance with the precepts of Hindu and Buddhist
cosmology, she personified Mount Meru - the center of the universe and
the abode of the gods. The royal temples were surrounded by a series of
concentric structures—walls, canals, ditches, and embankments—built
according to the same cosmological principles. Inside the concentric
structures were the main buildings of the ancient cities, including the
royal palace and temples built at the expense of the king, members of
the royal family or high dignitaries. All internal buildings, except for
religious monuments, were created from short-lived wood, and therefore
did not survive. An extremely important part of the capital cities were
water structures: reservoirs (in Khmer "barai"), canals, dams and ponds,
which were also built according to cosmological principles.
Angkor Wat is located two kilometers south of the ancient city of Angkor
Thom and five kilometers from the modern city of Siem Reap. Angkor Wat
is the largest temple complex not only in Cambodia, but also in the
world. The grandiose ensemble of stone buildings, esplanades,
courtyards, squares and canals covers an area of about 200 hectares. The
complex was erected during the period of the highest territorial and
political domination of the Angkor Empire and marks the end of the
heyday of Khmer classical architecture. According to local legend, the
Angkor ensemble was founded by the will of the god Indra, who wanted to
build a heavenly palace for Prince Ket Mealea.
According to Khmer
mythology, Ket Mealea (Ashes of Ket Mealia) was the son of the ruler
Indrapast. He possessed amazing beauty and spiritual perfections. The
god Entrea (Indra) himself descended to him on Earth and took him to
heaven. However, the heavenly beings could not bear the smell of man.
Then Indra ordered the divine architect Pusnuka to erect a palace on
earth, similar to the heavenly palace of Indra. The bull Nandin, Shiva's
mount, pointed out a place for construction on Bakheng Hill - this is
how the first sacred buildings of Angkor were laid.
The temple
complex of Angkor Wat was erected during the reign of Suryavarman II
(1113-1152) and dedicated to the god Vishnu. Khmer legends say that in
order to create a "heavenly palace on earth", the son of Suryavarman II
refused to inherit the throne, for which he received the nickname
"Mason". Angkor Wat has survived much better than many monuments of its
era due to its geographical remoteness and the artificial canals
surrounding it. The architecture, layout, sculptural compositions and
bas-reliefs of Angkor Wat are an inseparable fabric of a monument of
medieval temple art. While working on the bas-reliefs, scientists
discovered several images of Shiva and Brahmins with wedge-shaped
beards, atypical for the classical Angkorian style. Comparison with
images of the Taoist immortals of the Ming period revealed that Chinese
stone carvers took part in the creation of Angkor Wat. The hypothesis of
Chinese involvement is supported by the testimony of a contemporary,
Zhou Daguan, who visited Angkor Thom in 1297. In the Song and Yuan era,
Kambujadesh was considered a fertile land where Chinese craftsmen moved
to work.
In 2007, a team of researchers created a map of the
Angkor region based on aerial photographs and radar data. The study
covered an area of about 3,000 square kilometers around the temple
complex of Angkor Wat. As a result, 168 temple buildings were
discovered, of which access in the jungle was possible to 94. In
addition, aerial photography made it possible to determine the water and
transport system of the region: the location of once-existing ponds,
roads and canals. The Greater Angkor project was initiated by a group of
scientists from the University of Sydney with the involvement of
colleagues from Cambodia and France. They were able to map the entire
catchment area of the rivers of the Angkor region. The results of the
study showed that about two-thirds of the region was once inhabited,
making it the largest pre-industrial settlement in human history.
The history of Angkor ends at the end of the 13th century.
Construction in the capital stopped, and the inhabitants left its
territory. Only at the end of the 16th century did European visitors,
who were Portuguese missionaries and merchants, mention visiting the
forgotten place. The city was in ruins, was almost completely abandoned,
and the city buildings were swallowed up by the jungle. For centuries,
the rainforest hid from prying eyes the "dead city", which was once the
center of the Angkor Empire. The discovery took place on January 22,
1861, when the French botanist Henri Muo discovered a lost city on the
left bank of the Siem Reap River. The first acquaintance of the European
reader with Angkor was due to the publication of travel notebooks,
letters and drawings of Muo in the journal Le Tour du Monde. The
publication turned out to be posthumous - by that time the author had
died of swamp fever during an expedition to Laos. Following Muo, a few
more French explorers had to pay a high price for the passion for the
ancient city, swallowed up by the jungle.
Before the official
"discovery" of Angkor Wat by the French, its mention can be found in the
Portuguese chronicler Diogo do Couto. He describes Angkor Wat based on
the impressions of the Capuchin monk António da Madalena, who visited
Angkor between 1585 and 1586:
This temple [Angkor Wat] is one
hundred and sixty paces long, and it is such a strange structure that it
cannot be described with a pen, nor can it be compared with any other
building in the world. The central building is composed of four naves,
and the roof of the vault, highly ornamented, rises in a high pointed
dome, built on numerous columns, carved with all the frills that human
genius can devise.
— George Groslier, Angkor and Cambodia
After the establishment of the French mission in Phnom Penh in June
1864, representatives of the French colonial administration and the
first scientists began to visit the Angkor region. At the international
exhibition in Paris in 1889, objects of Angkorian art were exhibited.
They aroused keen interest among art historians and Orientalists. In
1898, by decision of the Paris Academy of Inscriptions and Belles
Literature, the Archaeological Mission of Indochina was established
under the High Commissariat of Indochina. Since 1900, it has been called
the "French School of the Far East" (L'Ecole française d'Extrême-Orient,
EFEO). The school began to coordinate scientific research in the
territory of the ancient Khmer kingdom and other regions of French
Indochina.
The romantic vision of a ruined city inspired the
British writer Rudyard Kipling to write the famous story about Mowgli
and the banderlog kingdom in an abandoned city. In The Jungle Book
(1894) Kipling describes his impressions of the ruins in the story
"Hunting the Python Kaa" and also in The Second Jungle Book (1895) in
the story "The King's Encas". However, Angkor was never completely
abandoned. It was briefly occupied by a Khmer king in the 1550s, and
later the Theravada Buddhist monks lived in its ruins.
In 1931, a
semi-annual international colonial exhibition was held in Paris. Its
symbol was a full-scale model of Angkor Wat. It was believed that the
colonial exhibition would represent the efforts of the French government
to fulfill its civilizational mission outside of Europe. The Angkor Wat
Pavilion combined reconstructions of parts of an ancient Khmer temple
with showcases of colonial reforms. From the outside, the Angkor Wat
pavilion was a detailed copy of it, while the inside was devoted to
economic and social activities in French Indochina.
Tradition says that Suryavarman II seized power by uniting the two
kingdoms. The battle with opponents, according to stone inscriptions,
was fierce: “after a battle that lasted a whole day, King
Dharanindravarman was overthrown by Suryavarman and his kingdom was left
without protection ... Bringing with him a large army, he began a fierce
battle; jumping on the head of the elephant on which the enemy king was
sitting, he killed him, just as Garuda on the top of the mountain killed
the snake.
Then turning against the nameless ruler, the heir of
Harshavarman III on the throne of Angkor, he forced him to share the
fate of his uncle Dharanindravarman. Having removed all obstacles,
Suryavarman II became the ruler of the united kingdom. According to
official sources, the accession to the throne of Suryavarman II
coincided with the death of Jaya Indravarman II in Champa and Chanzita
in Pagan - perhaps they were the opponents of Suryavarman II.
Despite the frequent defeats reported by opponents of Suryavarman II,
his military policy bore fruit, as evidenced by the territorial
expansion of the Khmer state. In the Chinese "History of the Sung
Dynasty" it is noted that in the north of Cambodia its border coincided
with the borders of Tonkin, in the east the country bordered on the
South China Sea, in the west the border coincided with the line of the
modern border with Burma, and in the south - with the line crossing the
Malacca peninsula, a little south of the Isthmus of Kra. Thus, the
territory of ancient Cambodia exceeded its modern borders. It included
present-day Vietnam, Laos, most of Thailand, and half of Malaya.
In addition to being a conqueror, Suryavarman II is known as an active
builder. The structures built during his reign are numerous, which is
confirmed by epigraphic data. These include a number of buildings
located in the north-west of the country, outside the capital. In some
places - in Phnom Chizor, Phnom Sandak, Wat Phu, Preah Vihear - he
completed unfinished buildings and laid new ones. In Angkor, Suryavarman
II built the Prah Pithu ensemble in the northern part of the royal
square, the Chau Sai Tevoda and Thommanom ensembles five hundred meters
from the Victory Gate, on the line of the eastern gopura of the royal
palace of Angkor Thom, the Banteay Samre ensemble at the eastern end of
East Baray, the central part of the Dust ensemble Khana in Kampongsvae
and others. Angkor Wat was the pinnacle of his building activity.
It is known that Suryavarman II was an adherent of Vaishnavism.
Worship of Vishnu became part of the tradition of the royal court. Most
of the temples under him were erected in honor of Vishnu. The efforts of
the ruler were aimed at maintaining his veneration as a deva-raja. One
of the hypotheses says that Angkor Wat, according to the plan and
internal location, is a temple intended for burial. It may have been
built to store the king's ashes, as well as a statue depicting him as
Vishnu. This is what makes the location of Angkor Wat so unusual,
because it is oriented to the west, which is the east for the dead.
The last years of the reign of Suryavarman II are little known. In
addition, there is no exact date of his death. The last stone
inscription mentioning Suryavarman II dates back to 1145. Apparently, he
was the mastermind behind the campaign against Tonkin in 1150. However,
the Chinese embassy of 1155 does not report anything about the change of
power. On the contrary, it marks the renewal of political ties between
countries. Ten tamed elephants were presented to the Chinese emperor. It
is believed that the resumption of diplomatic relations, interrupted for
seventeen years, was initiated by the heir Suryavarman II. Thus, his
death is dated between 1150 and 1155. The causes of death are also
unknown, but his posthumous name is known - Paramavisnuloka ("Going to
the highest abode of Vishnu"), which reflects his commitment to
Vaishnavism.
The first ancient Khmer state of Bapnom (or, as it was called in
China of the 2nd-6th centuries, Funan) was strongly influenced by South
Indian culture. In the 2nd century, Buddhist communities appeared on the
territory of modern Cambodia - first the Mahayana traditions, and then
in the 3rd century the Theravada. The spread of Buddhism was accompanied
by its adaptation to local beliefs. However, later Buddhism was replaced
by Hinduism. Following the spread in South India, Vaishnavism began to
penetrate Cambodia in the first third of the 5th century. Its apogee was
the deification of the king and the emergence of the cult of the
deva-raja, that is, the god-like ruler.
The heyday of the ancient
Khmer state fell on the period of the reign of King Jayavarman II. He
and his heirs pursued an active policy of conquest. As a result, by the
middle of the 9th century, Khmer possessions covered almost the entire
Indochinese peninsula. At the center of the new empire was the capital
region of Angkor. In the 9th-14th centuries, Hinduism flourished in the
Angkor Empire with the cult of the warlike deity Harihara, who united
the gods Vishnu and Shiva. He combined, on the one hand, the ancient
local traditions of honoring the ancestors and spirits of the earth,
and, on the other hand, faith in the divine powers of the ruler. Since
the 10th century, ideas have been put forward in temple art designed to
perpetuate the cult of the raja deva, in whose honor temples are
erected.
Angkor Wat was planned to honor Vishnu, glorify and
deify its creator, Suryavarman II. However, Vishnu's murti has not been
preserved in the main sanctuary of the temple. A large stone statue of
Vishnu, believed to be at the center of Angkor Wat, greets visitors at
the western entrance pavilion. Despite the fact that the eight-armed
image is not located in the sanctuary, but stands near the gate, in
Angkor Wat it is worshiped in the same way as Buddha statues. A flower
garland is put on Vishnu's neck, a yellow cloth is thrown over his body,
and symbolic banners made of paper and cloth are swaying on his hands.
At the feet of Vishnu, visitors leave offerings of lotus buds, the
pedestal in front of him is turned into an incense burner. Although the
statue depicts Vishnu, visiting Buddhists pay homage to him, reflecting
the religious syncretism that is characteristic of South and Southeast
Asia.
Despite decades of construction, the temple complex was
never completed. Its architectural layout and structure of the complex
took place, but the decorative work was not completed. The reasons for
the cessation of work could be numerous, the main of which is the death
of the patron of the temple, Suryavarman II. However, the unfinished
decoration had practically no effect on the inviolability of the
monument. The unfinished work may have been one of the reasons that
prompted the heirs of the ancient Khmers to reuse the complex as a
Buddhist shrine and Buddhist pilgrimage site. In the 16th century, King
Ang Chan (1516-66) placed Buddha sculptures in one of the unfinished
galleries to assert his political legitimacy as Suryavarman II's heir.
The earliest inscription that indicates the official resuscitation
of Angkor Wat dates from September 8, 1546. It records the beginning of
the stone carving project under the direction of the royal master Vrah
Mahidhar and its reason: "because the ancient king Maha-Vishu-Loka (i.e.
Suryavarman II) did not finish two stone panels". Ang Chan's grandson
named Satha "restored the building to its former glory". An inscription
dated 1577 states that the Queen Mother is delighted to see her son, the
ruler of Sath, rebuild the ancient temple of Vrah Vishnu Loka (i.e.
Angkor Wat) "totally bringing it back to the state it was in ancient
times. ". The walls of the complex were repaired, the roof was
reconstructed, and the top of the 60 towers was covered with gold.
By reanimating the monumental complex as a temple of Theravada
Buddhism, the Khmer rulers of the 16th century thereby made efforts to
reunite with their historical ancestors. For them, who were constantly
at war with neighboring kingdoms, including the Siamese who expelled the
Khmers from Angkor, the successful restoration of Angkor Wat and
identification with the ancient culture allowed them to strengthen their
political and spiritual status. By the 17th century, Angkor Wat was
already perceived as the largest Buddhist monastery in Southeast Asia,
attracting pilgrims even from Japan.
In a letter dated June 11,
1668, the French missionary M. Chevreul, who was in Cambodia from 1665
to 1670, mentions that
… there is a very old and famous temple
eight days' journey from the city where (if the Lord will give me some
free time) I hope to go. This temple is known among all the pagans of
the five or six great kingdoms as Rome is among the Christians; there
they have their learned people; and from there they receive instructions
and decisions regarding religion, as we have in Rome. It's called
"Onco"; People from Siam, Pegu, Laos, Ternaserim and other kingdoms come
and make important pilgrimages, even if they are at war among
themselves...
— George Groslier, Angkor and Cambodia
The
temple buildings housed images of the Buddha, standing along the walls
and corridors. The appearance of the monument and its decoration did not
undergo significant changes, but its interior space received a different
filling. Images of the Buddha were carved and painted on the walls of
the main shrine. In front of the sanctuary, statues of the Buddha
accumulated, which were left by pilgrims to receive spiritual "merits".
Most of the Buddhist inscriptions are on the sides of the columns
between the decorative patterns - they list the names of people who
donated gold, silver and wooden Buddha statues, as well as other
offerings. Subsequently, the French colonial administration got rid of a
significant part of them, as well as the surrounding wooden Buddhist
buildings, in order to give the complex a monotheistic look.
In
modern Angkor Wat, you can find many plinths without statues. A large
number of Buddhist images still used in worship are damaged. In
particular, many lack heads or limbs. This is partly the result of wild
"archaeologisation" during the colonial period. Artifacts worthy of
museums and aesthetically perfect were confiscated and sold to museums
in Europe, primarily in France. In the 20th century, trade in Khmer art
between Western collectors led to the loss of part of the heritage of
Angkor Wat.
The architecture of Angkor Wat historically dates back to the
Southeast Asian type of temple-mountain (prang). From the point of view
of the ensemble solution, it is the most complete and complicated
development of the temple-mountain concept in the conditions of the
Khmer plain. The architectural image of Angkor Wat symbolically
reproduces the Hindu model of the universe. The five central towers
represent the cosmic mountain Meru, located in the center of the
universe. The reservoir around represents the primary world ocean, the
churning of which, according to myth, brought the drink of immortality
to amrit.
The territory of Angkor Wat is a rectangular area about
1500 x 1300 meters in size, enclosed by a stone wall. Along it stretch
water channels with a width of about 200 meters. The temple complex is
oriented to the west and has a single external entrance with a portal
located in the center of the western wall. The ensemble of main
buildings has been moved to the eastern half of the site. Fine-grained
gray sandstone served as the main building material. From the gate in
the western outer wall to the main entrance to the inner temple
territory, there is a wide slab-paved road about 220 meters long. On
both sides of the western road to the main entrance, sculptural figures
of snakes-nagas, personifying the myth of the origin of the royal
dynasty, stretch. The main entrance is made in the form of a suite of
intersecting galleries. The complex of buildings behind it is based on a
rectangular stone platform measuring about 1025 x 800 meters, framed by
a wide pool and a wall.
The central part of the main temple is
located on three interconnected powerful terraces (the lower one
measures 197 x 215 meters). They rise up in the form of a pyramid with
increasing height: their height is, respectively, 3.5, 7 and 13 meters.
Each of the terraces is surrounded by a gallery with a gable roof and an
entrance with fancy porticos and a pediment. At the corners of the
galleries and in the center of the ensemble there are multi-tiered
pyramidal towers. The central sanctuary tower is 42 meters high and
rises 65 meters above ground level. It was intended to hold the
(posthumous) image of the dev-raja (god-king). Below it is a deep
vertical well-mine, where sacred objects and, possibly, the cremated
remains of the ruler were placed. The roofs of the towers and some other
buildings, apparently, were lined with gold.
The use of georadar
by scientists from the University of Sydney in the western part of
Angkor Wat led to the discovery of the remains of dismantled buildings
adjacent to the western tower, which is the main entrance to the temple
complex. The finds include the foundations of six laterite stone towers
that once existed. They were symmetrically located in relation to the
gate and the main temple of Angkor Wat. Apparently, they were surrounded
by a rectangular laterite wall, the remains of which are preserved on
the eastern side of the gate. Scholars believe that in addition to the
six towers built in front of the entrance to Angkor Wat, there were
three more towers that were demolished during the construction of the
main western entrance. Their configuration indicates that before the
reconstruction of the temple territory, the original appearance of the
complex was a kenkons of towers, surrounded by four additional towers.
The appearance of the Angkor Wat ensemble as an integral structure
is striking in its purity of lines and plastic perfection. The creation
of the ancient Khmer combines harmony and spiritual greatness. In the
relationship between the horizontal dimensions of the facades and the
verticals of the towers, in other parameters and the alternation of
esplanades, reservoirs and courtyards, there is a deep understanding by
the masters of Angkor Wat of the patterns and dynamics of the landscape
and spatial perception of the architectural ensemble.
The outer wall, measuring 1024 by 802 meters and 4.5 meters high, is
surrounded by a 200-meter-wide canal with a coastal strip of open land
thirty meters long. The passage to the temple is carried out along an
earthen embankment from the east, and from the west - along the crest of
a bulk sandstone dam. The entrance from the west is currently the main
entrance, but in the past there may have been a wooden bridge. Each side
of the world has its own gate tower, which serves as the entrance to the
temple complex. The western tower is the largest: it consists of three,
now destroyed, towers. Maurice Gleizes (English), custodian of Angkor
Wat in 1937-1945, notes that the main gate tower both hides the complex
from the entrance and echoes it, being its likeness. Below the southern
tower is a statue of Vishnu, known as Ta Reach, which, according to the
local population, was located in the central part of the temple. The
towers are connected by galleries, which have a solid wall on the inside
and square columns on the outside. The galleries are large enough to let
the elephants through - the entrances of the towers are often referred
to as "elephant gates". The ceiling between the columns is decorated
with rosettes in the form of a lotus flower, the western facade of the
wall is decorated with dancing figures, and the eastern one is decorated
with windows in the form of a balustrade, figures of men dancing on the
backs of galloping animals, and devatas, among whom there is one, the
only one in the whole temple, baring his teeth.
The surrounding
wall encloses a space of 820 thousand m2, which, in addition to the main
temple, was originally occupied by service and residential buildings, as
well as to the north of the temple, by the royal palace. Like the rest
of the mundane buildings of Angkor, the structures were built from
non-durable materials and nothing remains of them, except for the
contours of some streets. Much of the space within the outer wall is now
covered in jungle. The western tower is connected to the temple by a
350-meter stone road (platform) with a balustrade in the form of Naga
figures. The road has six entrances to the city on each side. On both
sides of the road there are also so-called "libraries" located opposite
the third staircase in a row, counting from the main temple. Ponds were
built between the libraries and the temple, which were added later, as
well as a cruciform terrace, guarded by lion figures, connecting the
stone road to the core of the complex.
Angkor Wat of the 12th and
13th centuries is known primarily as a religious center. The fate of the
complex of the late period, as a rule, is of less interest. Traces of
modifications to the circumferential wall hold the key to understanding
its future role. From the 9th to the 15th century, Angkor was at the
center of the Khmer empire. However, later he found himself on the
periphery of the state. By that time, the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya had
significantly expanded its influence and occupied part of the former
territory of Angkor. Angkor Wat was the first and only known example of
an Angkor temple that was rebuilt for defensive purposes. Circular holes
were made in the masonry of the perimeter wall, as well as openings of
collapsed walls were sealed and some other structural changes were made.
Wooden structures were attached to the circumferential wall from the
inside. Warriors were supposed to be on them - this was an analogue of a
fighting move or a wall gallery in medieval castles. There is no mention
of the reconstruction either in stone inscriptions or in chronicles.
Archaeological research conducted by the University of Sydney in the
2010s suggests that the rebuilding of Angkor Wat took place either
between 1297 and 1585 during defensive works, or between 1585 and 1630.
Apparently, it represented the last attempt to protect Angkor from
medieval Thailand. Thus, by the end of the Angkorian period, the temple
complex turned into a fortification.
Among the ancient Khmers, relief was given preference over other
types of decorative techniques. Temples from ancient times had a complex
sculptural design. The reliefs of early temples are considered
masterpieces of temple art: Banteaysrey (967), Bapuon (about 1060),
Bayon (construction from the 12th to the beginning of the 13th
centuries). Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu and the deification of
Suryavarman II. This is confirmed by the plots of the wall bas-reliefs
of Angkor Wat. Avatars of Vishnu, Rama and Krishna are dedicated to
scenes from the ancient Indian epics Ramayana, Mahabharata, Harivansha.
In addition, the walls of the temple tell about the exploits of
Suryavarman II. In the visual arts of Southeast Asia, it is difficult to
find other examples of such a majestic transmission of heroic stories.
Panel "Battle of devas and asuras" (northern gallery, western side)
The story about the exploits of Suryavarman II required the ancient
masters to create an ideal image of the ruler. In addition, the image of
Suryavarman II reflects the characteristic features of his era and
conveys the atmosphere of an ancient civilization. Thanks to the
coverage of events, the ability to reveal complex plots, the ancient
masters managed to reveal their history in each relief. The reliefs on
the walls of the outer galleries are created as a continuous series of
events. Narrative consistency is a hallmark of Angkor Wat's artistic
setting. Thematic panels look grandiose: their length reaches 800
meters, and the total area is 1400 m2.
Panel "Battle of
Kurukshetra" (western gallery, south side)
The décor of Angkor Wat
consists of reliefs, varied in patterns and degree of their convexity.
The reliefs can be both gigantic and almost flat, similar to embossing
on the skin. Another difference between the reliefs of Angkor Wat is the
skill of depicting mass scenes. You will not find anything like this in
the art of Ancient India, nor in other cultures of Southeast Asia.
Partially approaching the reliefs of Angkor Wat are giant rock reliefs
with scenes of Arjuna's repentance and the "Throwing of the Ganges to
the ground" in Mahabalipuram.
In total, Angkor Wat has eight
thematic compositions. Relief panels are arranged in a certain sequence.
These include an episode from the Mahabharata, the so-called "Historical
Gallery", an image of the heavenly and lower worlds, a story from the
Ramayana, the Churning of the Milky Ocean, a plot from the Harivansh,
the battle of gods and demons. In general, the compositions reflect the
myths about the creation of the universe, the stories of the gods and
battle scenes. The latter are called upon to identify the military
exploits of the king with the divine deeds of Vishnu.
Panel
"Vishnu's Victory over the Asuras" (east gallery, north side)
A
distinctive feature of the reliefs of Angkor Wat is their huge extent.
The compositions are designed for the viewer to see them at close range.
This explains the masters' choice of low relief technique. The artists
understood that their work would be seen in motion. As a result, their
choice was the allocation of three levels of panels, located
horizontally. The bottom edge of the horizontal row is dedicated to
secondary characters. It plays the role of a decorative frieze. The
middle level is dedicated to the main plot and its characters. The upper
edge is filled with images of the inhabitants of the heavenly world -
Apsaras. The masters used complex solutions, including spatial layering
and scaling of figures depending on their semantic significance. In
addition, the masters tried to arrange the figures in such a way as to
create the illusion of perspective and depth. The masters placed the
figures on the plane, alternating the effects of tension, stretching and
intersection with each other.
Angkor Wat is richly decorated with patterned ornaments. Common ones
include floral patterns popular in the Khmer tradition. Less common are
geometric patterns. Simple ornaments are found in the form of auxiliary
elements, such as patterned lattices and frames. Another distinguishing
feature of Angkor Wat is the combination of anthropomorphic and
zoomorphic patterns that give rise to bizarre stone patterns.
In
decorative design, the Khmer borrowed from the masters of ancient India
the veneration of trees. In Angkor Wat, the trees are depicted in
detail, which reflects a special attitude towards them. The drawings
themselves have repetitive elements, they alternate rhythmically and
have symmetry. Among plant drawings, preference was given to images of
the lotus. Several varieties can be distinguished, including lotus
shoots, stem whorls, flower buds and rosettes. It is noteworthy that
each image has its own logic and is located in a certain place. In
particular, the outer surface of the columns is decorated with rosettes
in the form of an open lotus flower, as well as buds and volutes of the
stem. The side and back surfaces of the columns were decorated with
images of an opened lotus in a circle. Finally, floral rosettes adorn
the plafonds and load-bearing beams.
The mastery of the artists
manifested itself in the creation of complex ornamental compositions.
Fantastic plants are intertwined in them, densely covering the surface
of the walls. Interlacing and alternation of lines create an original,
unique pattern. Complex ornaments alternate with simple ones, and the
use of typical patterns makes the overall composition harmonious and
balanced.
An example of a combination of floral and geometric
patterns is found in the sculptures of the riding bird Garuda and
snakes-nagas. They combine plastic and patterned decorative forms. In
addition, stylized human images can be found at Angkor Wat. For example,
drawings of deities, praying ascetics and dancing apsaras. Some
ornaments are geometric compositions of animals and plants. There are
other drawings in the temple complex, in which images of people, birds,
horses, lions and monkeys are visible.
From the middle of the 15th century until the 18th century, Angkor
Wat turned into a Buddhist shrine. After the partial restoration of the
complex by King Ang Chan (1516-66), Angkor Wat became a place of
pilgrimage for Buddhists, known far beyond the borders of Cambodia.
Buddhist transformation has left its artistic mark on the appearance of
Angkor Wat. In the 2010s scientists from the Australian National
University and the APSARA agency discovered about 200 wall paintings of
the post-Angkorian period. Under normal lighting, most patterns are not
visible to the human eye. Their presence was confirmed by digital image
processing. The drawings are colored images of boats, buildings, musical
instruments and animals.
In some drawings, deities and
mythological figures are recognized. The drawings within the second and
third walls are images of apsaras (celestial nymphs). Their figures are
crudely drawn in several styles, and their random distribution
throughout the complex may indicate that they are the work of visitors.
On the way to the main temple, in the entrance rooms in many reliefs,
Apsaras are bordered with red pigment. this is considered a sign that
the figures were drawn at the same time according to a common design.
Among the drawings, one non-Apsarian figure stands out - the image of
Hanuman, the monkey god and companion of Rama, popular in the
iconography of Southeast Asia.
Many of the drawings, possibly
acts of medieval vandalism, may have been left behind by pilgrims and
visitors to Angkor after it was abandoned in 1431. However, a number of
the drawings located in the uppermost part of the sanctuary of the
temple, apparently, were part of the restoration work of King Ang Chan.
Similar iconographic paintings are found in Buddhist temples throughout
mainland Southeast Asia. Similar temple frescoes are known in Pagan
(Myanmar) and Ayutthaya (Thailand). It is believed that most of the
drawings were made when Theravada Buddhism became the dominant religion.
The paintings at Angkor Wat are thus a rare example of Middle Period
painting and one of the earliest examples of temple frescoes in
post-Angkor Cambodia.
The stones that make up the building look polished. The masonry was
carried out without mortar, while the stones are so tightly fitted to
each other that the seams between them are sometimes impossible to find.
Stone blocks sometimes do not have joints and are held only by their own
weight. In some cases, a spike connection is used, as well as a
dovetail. Presumably, the stones were set in place using the force of
elephants, which served as a lifting force in a pulley mechanism using
coir ropes. Henri Muo noted in his notes that most of the stones have
holes with a diameter of 2.5 cm and a depth of 3 cm, and the larger the
stone block, the more holes in it. The exact purpose of the holes is
unknown, but some researchers suggest that they were intended to connect
stones to each other using metal rods, others hypothesize that temporary
dowels were inserted into the holes, which served to facilitate the
control of stone movement during installation. There are holes in some
of the walls of Angkor Wat, which may indicate that the walls were
decorated with metal (bronze) sheets. The metal shone in the rays of the
Sun, but it was also the target of robbers and vandals.
For the
construction of the complex, a huge amount of sandstone was used,
comparable to the volume that went into the construction of the Khafre
pyramid in ancient Egypt (more than 5 million tons). Centuries after the
construction of Angkor Wat, Japanese archaeologists from Waseda
University (Tokyo) discovered traces of a series of man-made water
channels that were involved in the construction of the complex.
Supposedly, five million tons of sandstone used for the construction of
temples were transported to the construction site by water. Each of the
sandstone blocks weighs up to 1.5 tons and was mined in quarries on the
Kulen mountain plateau. In 2012, archaeologists discovered the remains
of channels from the foot of Kulen to Angkor, 34 kilometers long. More
than 50 stone quarries were found near the Kulen Plateau and along the
water route, the materials of which match the stone that makes up the
temple.
Joint research by scientists from the University of Hawaii, the
University of Illinois, the French School of the Far East and the APSARA
agency, conducted between 2010 and 2013, made it possible to describe
the residential areas of Angkor Wat located within its outer wall. The
entire space inside the wall was an orthogonal grid. Each of its cells
was a "block" formed by embankments and depressions. The exception is
the area from the main western tower to the main temple. The embankments
appear to have once been buildings, while the depressions were once
ponds. Thus, the area around the temple was a grid of buildings and
ponds. The entire territory could include 283 buildings and 250-300
ponds.
Signs of residential settlement at Angkor Wat date back to
the 6th century, that is, long before the official founding of Angkor
and the construction of Angkor Wat itself in the 1100s. In other words,
the area has been inhabited for several centuries. Excavations have
shown that light residential buildings were located on the territory
near the temple. Scientists have not found evidence of an exclusive
elite building of the temple building. This means that neither royalty
nor Brahmins lived around Angkor Wat. On the contrary, the main
inhabitants were employees of the temple with modest material wealth.
They occupied relatively small and short-lived buildings in the
immediate vicinity of the temple. The layout of the territory around the
temple, its system of ponds and houses, is not original. It was formed
as a result of long-term residential development, the original structure
of which dates back to the 6th-8th centuries. The final residential
structure was formed already in the XI-XII centuries.
In Angkor
Wat, daily religious rituals, collective and individual, dedicated to
Vishnu were held. They were attended by brahmins and their assistants,
pilgrims, ascetics and believers. Pujas, temple ceremonies, festivals
and other events required significant attendants. In addition to
priests, musicians, dancers, singers and guards, they included gardeners
for making garlands, milkmen for making butter, bookkeepers for keeping
expenses on ceremonies, as well as cooks, tailors, carpenters, weavers,
washers, masons, architects - in short, everyone those who maintained
the temple infrastructure.
Archaeological excavations have
revealed three waves of settlement at Angkor Wat before the 16th
century, when Khmer royalty made efforts to restore the temple to its
former glory. The first wave were 6th-century settlers who apparently
laid out the sacred site. The second wave of mass settlement continued
throughout the reign of Suryavarman II. Finally, new settlers arrived
after the end of the Angkorian period after the 15th century, but their
numbers were insignificant.
Most of the burial mounds in the
temple area contain archaeological evidence of residential activities
such as cooking and building houses. The extracted materials contain
mainly ceramics, including earthenware and Chinese ware. Chinese
utensils date from the period between the Northern Song Dynasty
(960-1279) and the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). Some Chinese centers such
as Guangdong are known to have produced goods for foreign trade and
these are found throughout the Khmer kingdom. Chinese bowls, boxes and
spherical vases of low quality were found at Angkor Wat, which indicates
intensive trade with the northern neighbor.
At its peak, Angkor
Wat may have had between 3,000 and 4,300 inhabitants. No significant
differences were found in ceramic ensembles from different mounds, which
indicates the absence of social stratification. In other words, the
territory around the temple was occupied by service personnel. It is
possible that both permanent and temporary employees were located in
light residential buildings. The latter worked on a “shift basis”: they
moved here every month for two weeks, which was typical for ancient
Cambodia.
The dense jungle that covered much of the abandoned city made it
difficult for early European explorers to map Angkor. It was not until
the late 1930s that Georges Trouvet and Henri Marshal, scientists of the
French School of the Far East, were able to draw maps of the central
part of Angkor. The maps revealed an amazing system of canals,
embankments, dams, ditches, reservoirs and ponds. The artificial water
system served for the accumulation, storage and distribution of water in
the gigantic territory of Angkor. In addition, Angkor's water system was
part of a complex agricultural irrigation network. The man-made system
of Angkor was the source of prosperity and expansion of the city.
However, it was she who caused its decline and subsequent destruction.
The use of remote sensing methods allowed scientists to obtain a
complete map of the area. The Angkor water management network covered an
area of 900 to 1000 km2. The size of the controlled territory indicates
that Angkor was the largest pre-industrial settlement on Earth. In fact,
it combined the management of water resources, the administrative and
religious center.
As the city grew, residents preferred not to
upgrade the old water management infrastructure, but to expand it, while
at the same time complicating the flow management system. By the end of
the 11th century, all local rivers were diverted by canals to feed the
rice fields. Angkor has reached the maximum capacity of its water
infrastructure. Its further development was impossible and the city
began to suffer from defects in complex planning. Even relatively small
changes in water flows, such as a wet year or an overflow in one of the
key channels, could cause the entire water system to malfunction. The
accumulation of water in artificial formations led to silt settlement
and clay formation, as well as uneven distribution of nutrients. Long
periods of stagnant water in reservoirs led to the disappearance of
nutrients. In some channels, located "upstream", there was a build-up of
a layer of silt, while "downstream" nutrient reserves were depleted. In
addition, the drainage of certain areas as a result of failures in the
irrigation system has led to soil acidification and a deterioration in
the productivity of rice fields. By the 14th century, Angkor's water
management network was suffering from numerous problems that were not,
or could not be, remedied. The water system was already too large and
complex to reconfigure. The population had no choice but to
unsuccessfully struggle with the centuries-old consequences of water
management mistakes.
The collapse of Angkor's water management
system in the 14th and 15th centuries coincided with a severe drought
that caused social upheaval. Long periods of drought occurred in
1350-1370 and 1400-1420. Climate change was accompanied by the migration
of local elites to new places of residence. Their workers followed them,
and over time, the water system of Angkor was no longer possible to
serve due to a lack of people. The last major stone temple at Angkor was
built in 1295, the same year as the last stone inscription in Sanskrit.
The last inscription in Khmer is dated 1327. The capital was moved to
the south of the empire, and Angkor began to lose its political and
economic significance. The city's elite left the city about a century
before it finally became depopulated. It is believed that the collapse
of the Angkor civilization occurred in 1431, when the capital was sacked
by the troops of the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya.
Research in the
University of Sydney region showed that urban land use gradually
declined over the hundred years before population exodus. By the end of
the 14th century, the canals and reservoirs were covered with floating
wetland vegetation, indicating that the city's water infrastructure was
no longer maintained. Archaeological evidence suggests that the demise
of Angkor was not a one-time occurrence due to the Thai invasion or the
destruction of the water system, but was gradual, accompanied by a
demographic shift in the urban elite. In the XV century the city ceased
to exist.
Like other ancient temples in Cambodia, Angkor Wat faced the problem
of gradual destruction. Under the influence of natural factors such as
tropical humidity, wind, sunlight, vegetation and fungi, stone materials
gradually decay. Work on the preservation of Angkor Wat began as early
as 1908 with the launch of the Conservation d'Angkor project of the
French School of the Far East. The school was responsible for research,
conservation and restoration until 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took over.
From 1986 to 1992, restoration work on the temple was carried out by the
Archaeological Survey of India, as France at that time did not recognize
the Cambodian government. In 1992, after the appeal of King Norodom
Sihanouk of Cambodia, Angkor Wat was included in the UNESCO World
Heritage List as being in danger (and excluded from it in 2004).
To preserve the monument, in 1993 the governments of France and Japan,
in cooperation with UNESCO and the government of Cambodia, established
the International Coordinating Committee for Angkor (ICC-Angkor). It is
designed to coordinate and harmonize scientific and archaeological
projects, as well as to determine the technical standards and financial
conditions necessary for the implementation of projects in the Angkor
region. In 1995, the Cambodian government created a special state
agency, APSARA Authority, to protect the site of the monument and
develop the historical region of Angkor. In 1996, the Cambodian Heritage
Protection Act came into force.
Not the last role in the
deterioration of the monument is played by the human factor. If in 1993
only 7.6 thousand tourists visited the place, then in 2012-15 their
number exceeded two million. Angkor Wat accounts for every second
foreign tourist arriving in Cambodia. According to the Ministry of
Tourism of Cambodia, 2.6 million people visited the monument in 2018,
and the revenue of the state-owned company Angkor Enterprise, which is
responsible for selling tickets, amounted to 116.6 million US dollars.
The main flow of tourists comes from China, followed by South Korea and
the United States. According to TripAdvisor travel service, out of 759
attractions from 68 countries, Angkor Wat took the first place in 2017
in popularity. It is followed by Plaza de España in Seville, the Sheikh
Zayed Mosque in Abu Dhabi, St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican and other
attractions.
The flow of tourists causes some damage to the
monument, and for the safety of the authorities, they resorted to
preventive measures: they stretched ropes as fences and installed wooden
steps for climbing. By decision of the International Coordinating
Committee for Angkor in 2019, a decision was made to build a 23 km long
cycle path around the archaeological park. European tourists rent
bicycles from hotels, while most prefer cars and motorcycles. Laying a
cycle path should ensure the safety of cyclists and reduce traffic
congestion.
The maintenance of the complex takes about a third of
the proceeds from ticket sales. Most of the work on the preservation and
restoration of the monument is funded by foreign governments - France,
Japan, the United States and others. In 2001, the Cambodian authorities
developed the concept of "Angkor Tourist City". It involves the
improvement of transport links with the protected area and the
construction of hotels for foreign tourists. To receive tourists in Siem
Reap, an international airport was built in 2006. However, the
implementation of the large-scale Angkor Tourist City project has
jeopardized the water supply, sewerage and electricity systems in the
neighboring city of Siem Reap. The clearing of the jungle, housing
construction and the laying of a highway have affected the groundwater
level, which negatively affects the stability of the temple.
As
of 2017, work on the conservation of Angkor Wat was carried out by
several international projects: the Japanese "Team for Safeguarding
Angkor" and the University of Sofia "Angkor International Mission", the
American World Monuments Fund, the Italian Ingegneria Geotecnica, the
German Apsara Conservation Project.
The popularization of Angkor Wat in Western culture was largely
facilitated by the release in 2001 of the Hollywood blockbuster Lara
Croft: Tomb Raider starring Angelina Jolie. In entertainment films, it
is presented as a place of daily trade and a Buddhist temple where monks
gather for rituals. At the same time, Angkor Wat is revealed as a
mystical spiritual place where the protagonist is healed and receives
spiritual insight. The "post-modern" characteristics of Angkor, blurring
the lines between the real and the fictional, have created a
controversial picture of Angkor. However, due to the fact that Lara
Croft became the first popular film made about Angkor since 1964, many
in Cambodia welcomed its release. It was believed that it would
positively affect tourism and trade.
In 2012-14, the dystopian
anime series "Psycho-Pass" was released in Japan, where Angkor Wat is
the setting for some scenes.
Popular science and documentaries
about Angkor Wat.