Australia (from the Latin. Austrālis - "southern"), the official
form is the Australian Union or the Commonwealth of Australia - a
state in the Southern Hemisphere that occupies the continent of the
same name, the island of Tasmania and several other islands of the
Indian and Pacific Oceans; It is the sixth largest country in the
world. East Timor, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea are located north
of the Australian Union, Vanuatu, New Caledonia and the Solomon
Islands to the northeast, and New Zealand to the southeast. The
shortest distance between the main island of Papua New Guinea and
the mainland of the Australian Union is only 145 km, and the
distance from the Australian island of Boigu to Papua New Guinea is
only 5 km. The population at December 31, 2018 was estimated at
25,180,200 people, most of whom live in cities on the east coast.
Australia is one of the developed countries, being the
thirteenth largest economy in the world, and has the sixth place in
the world in terms of GDP per capita. Australia's military spending
is the twelfth largest in the world. With the second largest human
development index, Australia ranks high in many areas, such as
quality of life, health, education, economic freedom, protection of
civil liberties and political rights. Australia is a member of the
G20, OECD, WTO, APEC, UN, Commonwealth of Nations, ANZUS and the
Pacific Islands Forum.
The term "Australia" comes from lat. austrālis ("southern"). In
colloquial speech of Australians, the word Oz is used to refer to
Australia. The word Aussie is used to refer to the adjective
"Australian" by Australians.
Legends about the Unknown
Southern Land (Latin Terra Australis Incognita) - “unknown land in
the south” - date back to the times of the Roman Empire and were a
common occurrence in medieval geography, despite the fact that they
were not based on any knowledge about the continent itself.
The earliest documented record of the use of the word “Australia” in
English was written in 1625, “Information about Australia del
Espiritu Santo, written by Master Hulklight” (English A note of
Australia del Espíritu Santo, written by Master Hakluyt) and
published by Samuel Pourchas at Hakluytus Posthumus, where the
Spanish name Australia del Espiritu Santo (Spanish: Australia del
Espíritu Santo), given to an island in the New Hebrides archipelago,
was distorted to “Australia”. The adjective "Australische" was also
used by Dutch officials in Batavia (modern Jakarta) to refer to all
of the southern lands newly discovered since 1638. The word
"Australia" was used in the English-translated book of the French
utopian writer Gabriel de Fouagni "The Adventures of Jacques Sader,
his journey and discovery of the Astral Earth" (French Les Aventures
de Jacques Sadeur dans la Découverte et le Voyage de la Terre
Australe; 1676). For the entire South Pacific, this term is used by
Alexander Dalrymple, a Scottish geographer, in his book An
Historical Collection of Voyages and Discoveries in the South
Pacific Ocean; 1771; . At the end of the 18th century, the term was
used by botanists George Shaw and James Edward Smith to refer to the
Australian continent in their book Zoology and Botany of New Holland
(English Zoology and Botany of New Holland; 1793), as well as on a
1799 map belonging to James Wilson .
The name "Australia" became popular after the publication in 1814 of
"Travel in Terra Australis" by Captain Matthew Flinders, who is the
first person to circumnavigate the Australian continent. In preparing
it, Flinders convinced his patron, Joseph Banks, to use the term Terra
Australis, as it was better known to the public. Flinders did this by
stating:
"Had I permitted myself any innovation on the original
term, it would have been to convert it to Australia; as being more
agreeable to the ear, and an assimilation to the names of the other
great portions of the earth."
This is the only use of the word
"Australia" in the text; but in Appendix III of Robert Brown's General
remarks, geographical and systematic, on the botany of Terra Australis
(1814), the adjective "Australian" is used throughout and this book is
the first documented use of the word. Despite popular misconception, the
book did not play a major role in the adoption of "Australia" for the
name of the continent - this name was adopted within the next ten years
after the book's release. Lachlan Macquarie, Governor of New South
Wales, used the title in official letters to England, and on December
12, 1817 recommended that the British Empire's Colonial Office
officially adopt it. In 1824, the British Admiralty finally approved
this name for the continent.
Australia before contact with Europeans (before 1606)
The
ancestors of the Australian aborigines appeared in Australia 40-60
thousand years ago (according to other sources - about 70 thousand years
ago). People arrived in Australia by sea at a time when New Guinea and
Tasmania were part of the continent, making them the earliest sea
travelers in the world. The settlement of the continent by people began
42-48 thousand years ago.
The earliest human remains have been
found at Lake Mungo, a dry lake in southeastern New South Wales. These
remains are one of the oldest examples of cremation found on Earth,
indicating the early existence of religious rituals among Australian
Aborigines.
Aboriginal art is considered to be the world's oldest
continuing art tradition. It is estimated to be 30,000 years old and can
be found throughout Australia (particularly Uluru and Kakadu National
Park). In terms of age and abundance of drawings, rock art in Australia
is comparable to the caves of Lascaux and Altamira in Europe.
In
the period 10-12 thousand years BC, Tasmania is isolated from the
mainland, and some stone technologies could not reach the Tasmanian
natives (for example, the use of a boomerang). Volcanic eruptions
frequently occurred in southeastern Australia during the earliest period
of Australian history. In southeastern Australia, on Lake Condah in
Victoria, semi-permanent settlements with large food supplies have been
found. For centuries, the Makassars traded with the Aborigines of
Australia, in particular the Yolngu people of northeast Arnhem Land.
Discovery of Australia by navigators (1606-1788)
Some authors
have tried to prove that Europeans visited Australia as early as the
16th century. Kenneth McIntyre[en] and other historians have claimed
that the Portuguese secretly discovered Australia in the 1620s. The
presence on the maps of Dieppe of the inscription "Jave-La-Grand"
(French Jave La Grande) was often perceived by them as proof of the
"Portuguese discovery". However, the maps of Dieppe reflect the
incomplete state of geographical knowledge of that era, both factual and
theoretical. While theories of pre-17th-century European visits continue
to attract much interest in Australia and elsewhere, they are generally
considered controversial and lack evidence.
The discovery of
Australia took place in 1606, when Willem Janszon landed on the coast of
Australia on the ship Dyfken, naming it New Holland and declaring it the
possession of the Netherlands (it was never mastered by the Dutch). In
the same year, the Spanish expedition of Pedro Fernandez Quiroz landed
on the New Hebrides and, believing that this was the southern continent,
called it the Southern Land of the Holy Spirit (Spanish: Austrialis del
Espiritu Santo). Later that year, Quiros' deputy Luis Vaez de Torres
sailed through the Torres Strait and may have seen the northern coast of
Australia.
In 1642, the Dutchman Abel Tasman made a journey
during which he discovered Van Diemen's Land (later called Tasmania) and
New Zealand, which made a significant contribution to the exploration of
Australia. He sailed past the east coast of Australia to the south coast
of New Guinea in 1644 on his second voyage. He skipped the Torres Strait
between New Guinea and Australia and continued sailing west along the
Australian coast, eventually charting the west coast of Australia.
By the 50s of the XVII century, thanks to the Dutch navigators, the
outlines of Australia were quite clearly drawn on the maps.
With
the exception of Dutch exploration on the west coast, Australia remained
unexplored until the first voyage of James Cook. Initially, the idea to
establish a colony for exiled convicts in the Southern Ocean or Terra
Australis was proposed by John Callander.
In 1769, Lieutenant
James Cook, commanding the HMS Endeavor, traveled to Tahiti to see the
transit of Venus across the disk of the Sun. Cook also carried out
secret Admiralty instructions to search for the Southern Continent.
There is reason to imagine that a continent, or land of great
extent, may be found to the southward of the track of former navigators.
On April 19, 1770, the crew of the ship Endeavor sighted the east
coast of Australia and landed ten days later in Botany Bay. Cook
explored the east coast, and then, together with the ship's naturalist
Joseph Banks, reported a favorable situation for establishing a colony
in Botany Bay.
British colonization (1788-1901)
The first
British colony on the continent, New South Wales, was founded on January
26, 1788, when Arthur Phillip brought the First Fleet to Port Jackson.
This day later became a national holiday - the day of Australia. Van
Diemen's Land (present-day Tasmania) was settled in 1803 and received
the status of a separate colony in 1825. The United Kingdom formally
claimed the western part of Australia as its own in 1828, thus beginning
to own the entire continent.
Over time, separate colonies were
formed from parts of New South Wales: South Australia in 1836, Victoria
in 1851, and Queensland in 1859. The Northern Territory was founded in
1911 by carving out parts of South Australia. South Australia, Victoria
and Western Australia were founded as so-called "free colonies", that
is, they never brought prisoners there, but the last two colonies soon
began to import prisoners too. The reluctance of the inhabitants of New
South Wales to accept convicts led to the end of the importation of
prisoners to this colony; the last ship with convicts arrived in 1848
(however, the last ship with prisoners arrived in Australia on January
10, 1868, in the state of Western Australia).
The indigenous
population, which ranged from 750,000 to 1,000,000 at the start of
European settlement in Australia, declined sharply in the 150 years
after settlement began, largely due to infectious diseases brought by
whites. The author of several books on Aboriginal rights and history,
Bain Atwood, believes that the Stolen Generations program may have
contributed to the decline in the Australian Aboriginal population. This
interpretation of Aboriginal history is disputed by many conservatives,
such as former Australian Prime Minister John Howard, and is considered
by them to be exaggerated or fabricated for political or ideological
reasons. The Stolen Generations debate in Australia has been called the
"Historic Wars". The federal government gained the right to make laws in
relation to the natives after a referendum in 1967. Aboriginal land
rights were not recognized until 1992, when the High Court in Mabo v.
Queensland (2) overturned Australia's understanding of terra nullius
("no man's land") prior to European settlement.
In the early
1850s, Australia experienced a gold rush. Later, in 1854, there was the
Eureka Rebellion against the collection of money for mining licenses,
which was one of the first expressions of civil disobedience. Between
1855 and 1890, the six colonies were individually given responsible
government, managing most of the affairs of the colony, while remaining
part of the British Empire. The British Empire's Colonial Office in
London retained its control over certain matters, notably foreign
affairs, defense and international shipping.
Australian Union
(1901 - present)
On January 1, 1901, the Australian colonies agreed
to form a federation, the Commonwealth of Australia (also known as the
Commonwealth of Australia). The preparation of this move took about ten
years of negotiations, consultations, and votes in the colonial
parliaments. In 1907, the young nation received the status of a dominion
of the British Empire. In 1911, a territory was allocated from the lands
of the state of New South Wales for the construction of the future
capital - Canberra. From the day the federation was founded until the
completion of the first government buildings in Canberra (1901-1927),
Melbourne performed the functions of the capital. In 1911, the Northern
Territory was formed from the northern territories of South Australia.
In 1914, Australia voluntarily took part in the First World War on the
side of the British Empire. During the war, Australians took part in
many major battles on the Western Front. Of the approximately 416,000
Australians who took part in the war, about 60,000 were killed and
152,000 were wounded. Many Australians regard the defeat of the
Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC) at Galipoli as the birth
of the nation, its first major military action. The Battle of Kokoda in
1942 is considered to be a similar event in terms of influence.
In accordance with the Statute of Westminster, the only
constitutional link between Australia and Great Britain remained a
common head of state - the British monarch. Australia adopted it in
1942, but the adoption date was officially set as 1939 in order to
validate legislation passed by the Australian Parliament during World
War II. The shock of Britain's defeat in Asia in 1942 and the threat of
a Japanese invasion brought Australia and the United States closer
together. Since 1951, under the terms of the ANZUS Treaty, Australia has
become a formal military ally of the United States.
After World
War II, immigration from Europe began to be encouraged in Australia.
Since the 1970s, after the abolition of the White Australia policy, the
level of immigration from Asia has increased. As a result, Australian
demographics, culture and self-esteem of Australians (the assessment of
the nation as a whole) have changed. In 1986, the Australia Act was
passed, which abolished the supremacy of the British Parliament over the
parliaments of the individual Australian states and the supremacy of the
British court.
During the 1999 constitutional referendum, 55% of
Australians rejected the project to make Australia a republic. From the
election of Gough Whitlam in 1972 until the early 2000s, Australian
foreign policy began to develop ties with other countries in the Pacific
region, while maintaining close ties with Australia's traditional allies
and trading partners.
The Commonwealth of Australia is a state in the Southern Hemisphere
with an area of 7,692,024 km². Australia is the sixth largest state in
the world after Russia, Canada, China, USA and Brazil, occupying about
5% of the Earth's land surface. It is also the largest state in terms of
territory, located entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. It includes:
mainland Australia (including the island of Tasmania) with an area of
7,659,861 km² and other coastal islands with an area of 32,163 km².
Australia controls several external territories: the Cocos (Keeling)
Islands with an area of 14 km², Christmas Island with an area of 135
km², the Ashmore and Cartier Islands with an area of 199 km², the
territory of the Coral Sea Islands with an area of 7 km² (water area
is about 780 thousand km²), Heard Island and the 372 km² McDonald
Islands (part of the Australian Antarctic Territory), Norfolk Island 35
km² and the Australian Antarctic Territory 5,896,000 km² (Australian
sovereignty over this territory is not recognized by most countries in
the world). The total area of all external territories is 5,896,762
km² (excluding the Antarctic Territory - 762 km²).
The northern
and eastern coasts of Australia are washed by the seas of the Pacific
Ocean: Arafura, Coral, Tasmanovo, Indian Ocean - Timor; western and
southern - the Indian Ocean. Near Australia are the large islands of New
Guinea and Tasmania. Along the northeast coast of Australia, the world's
largest coral reef, the Great Barrier Reef, stretches for more than
2,000 kilometers.
Australia stretches from west to east for
almost 4,000 kilometers, and from north to south for about 3,860
kilometers. The extreme points of the mainland are: in the north - Cape
York (10 ° S. latitude), in the south - Cape South East Cape (43 ° S.
latitude), in the west - Cape Steep Point (114 ° E. long. .), in the
east - Cape Byron (154 ° E).
The length of the coastline of
Australia is 59,736 km (of which the mainland - 35,877 km, the island -
23,859 km), and the area of the exclusive economic zone is 8,148,250
km².
Australia's climate is heavily influenced by ocean currents,
including the Indian Ocean Dipole and El Niño, which create periodic
droughts and seasonal tropical low pressures that lead to the
formation of cyclones in northern Australia. These factors cause a
marked change in precipitation from year to year. Much of the north
of the country has a tropical climate with predominantly summer
precipitation. Almost three quarters of Australia are deserts and
semi-deserts. In the southwestern part of the country, the climate
is Mediterranean. Much of the southeast of the country (including
Tasmania) has a temperate climate. The aridity of the region is
affected by the cold West Australian Current, which does not provide
energy for the formation of a cyclone. Something similar is
happening in the west of South America, but everything changes there
with the advent of El Niño.
Precipitation level
Nearly 40%
of Australia receives less than 250 mm of precipitation per year,
and 70% less than 500 mm. The driest region of Australia is located
around Lake Eyre, in South Australia. It receives less than 125 mm
of precipitation annually. For comparison, Moscow receives 600-800
mm of precipitation per year, Madrid - 400 mm, and Tokyo - 1530 mm.
Regions that receive a lot of precipitation are small in area. Snow
falls regularly in only two places - at an altitude of 1350 m in the
Australian Alps and at an altitude of 1050 m in the mountains of
Tasmania.
The territory of the country is based on the ancient Australian platform, which is part of the once-existing continent of Gondwana in the southern hemisphere of the Earth.
Most of the country's territory is occupied by vast deserts and
lowlands. The most famous deserts are: Great Sandy Desert, Great
Victoria Desert. To the east of the Victoria Desert lies the semi-desert
of the Great Artesian Basin. In the east of the mainland there are
heavily destroyed, low mountains of the Hercynian folding - the Great
Dividing Range with a maximum height in the south (Mount Kosciuszko,
2228 m; Townsend, 2209 m). Faults and river valleys divide the mountains
into separate massifs. The tops of the mountains are dome-shaped. The
eastern slopes of the mountains drop steeply to the sea, the western
slopes are more gentle. Australia is the only continent where there is
no modern glaciation and active volcanoes; Australia owns two active
volcanoes located on islands away from the mainland.
The lowest
point in Australia is Lake Eyre (−15 m), with an area of about
15,000 km².
Mount Kosciuszko is the highest point on the
Australian continent. The country's highest point (Mawson Peak Volcano)
is located on the subantarctic Heard Island.
The main natural wealth of the country is mineral resources. Australia's endowment with natural resource potential is 20 times higher than the world average. The country ranks 2nd in the world in terms of bauxite reserves (1/3 of the world reserves and 40% of production), zirconium, 1st in the world in terms of uranium reserves (1/3 of the world) and 3rd (after Kazakhstan and Canada ) for its production: 8022 tons in 2009. The country ranks 6th in the world in terms of coal reserves. It has significant reserves of manganese, gold, diamonds. In the south of the country (the Brownlow field), as well as off the northeastern and northwestern coasts in the shelf zone, there are insignificant deposits of oil and natural gas.
Australia's river system is small. It is represented mainly by the
Murray River (Murray) with a tributary of the Darling, which originate
in the Great Dividing Range. In the lower reaches, the Darling dries up
and breaks up into separate reservoirs. The length of the Murray, which
is the longest river in the country, is 2375 km. The second longest
river in Australia is the Murrumbidgee (1485 km), the third is the
Darling (1472 km; taking into account the length of all tributaries of
the Darling River, which are not officially part of it, the length
increases to 2844 km, making the Darling the longest river in
Australia). The Murray River and its tributary, the Darling, are also
the main rivers in the Murray-Darling river basin, which is considered
the largest in the country: it occupies about 14% of Australia's land
mass, or more than 1 million km². The most developed river network is on
the island of Tasmania. The rivers there have a mixed rain and snow
supply and are full-flowing throughout the year. They flow down from the
mountains and therefore are stormy, rapids and have large reserves of
hydropower. For example, the Derwent River is widely used for the
construction of hydroelectric power plants. The availability of cheap
electricity contributes to the development of energy-intensive
industries in Tasmania, such as the smelting of pure electrolyte metals,
the production of cellulose, etc. The lack of surface water is partially
compensated by the large reserves of groundwater that accumulate in
artesian basins. The artesian waters of Australia contain a lot of
salts.
On the territory of Australia there are a large number of
lakes, which are located mainly in basins filled with water only after
rains. At the same time, for a significant part of the year, these lakes
are covered with a clay-saline crust. The largest lakes in the country
are Eyre (9500 km²), Mackay (3494 km²), Amadius (1032 km²), Garnpang
(542 km²) and Gordon (270 km²; at the same time it is the largest
artificial reservoir in Australia). The largest salt lakes are Eyre
(9500 km²), Torrens (5745 km²) and Gairdner (4351 km²). The highest lake
in Australia is Cootapatamba.
Although most of the continent is occupied by semi-deserts and
deserts, Australia has a variety of landscapes: from those similar to
alpine meadows to tropical jungles. Due to the considerable age of the
continent (as well as low soil fertility), the wide variety of weather
patterns and long geographical isolation, Australia's biota is rich and
unique. The flora and fauna of Australia in total include about 12
thousand species, of which about 9 thousand are endemic. Among flowering
plants, 85% are endemic, 84% are mammals, 45% are birds, and 89% are
coastal fish. Many of Australia's ecological regions and their flora and
fauna are threatened by human activity and introduced plant and animal
species.
The main legal document regulating the protection of
endangered species in Australia is the Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (Eng. Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999). In order to protect and preserve
the unique ecosystem of Australia, a large number of protected areas
have been created in the country: 64 wetlands have been included in the
Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance, 16 sites have been
included in the World Heritage List. In 2005, Australia ranked 13th in
the Environmental Sustainability Index.
Most Australian woody
plants are evergreen, and some have adapted to drought or fire, such as
eucalyptus and acacia. The continent has a large number of endemic
plants of the legume family, which can survive on marginal soils thanks
to mycorrhiza with bacteria of the genus Rhizobium.
The flora of
cool Tasmania differs significantly from the flora of the mainland. In
addition to the eucalyptus trees typical of Australia, a significant
number of tree species related to New Zealand and South American trees
grow on the island, in particular the evergreen southern beech
(notophagus).
The most famous representatives of the Australian
fauna are monotremes (platypuses and echidnas), various marsupials
(koalas, kangaroos, wombats), and birds such as emu, cockatoo and
kookaburra. Australia is home to the largest number of venomous snakes
in the world. Dingoes were introduced by Austronesians who traded with
the Australian Aborigines from 3000 BC. e. Many plants and animals,
including giant marsupials, became extinct at the end of the
Pleistocene; others (for example, the Tasmanian tiger (marsupial wolf))
became extinct with the advent of Europeans.
The waters washing
Australia are also rich in cephalopods. Among the most famous species
are blue-ringed octopuses (several species of the genus Hapalochlaena,
ranked among the most poisonous animals in the world) and giant
Australian cuttlefish, gathering every winter for mass mating games in
one of the bays of Spencer Bay.
Air pollution
About 10% of homes in Australia are heated with
wood, which leads to significant air pollution during the cold months.
Wood heating accounts for up to 40% of air pollution, including large
cities such as Sydney and Adelaide. A study in the small town of
Armidale (about 20,000 inhabitants) found that 14 premature deaths and
more than $30 million in damages were associated with woodstove smoke
each year.
Especially strong air pollution is caused by large
forest fires, the smoke from which in some years reaches the shores of
New Zealand.
Water use restrictions
By the end of the 20th
century, a tense situation with fresh water had developed in many parts
of Australia. For example, the growing needs of the population and
industry of the state of South Australia could hardly be met by
traditional sources (the Murray River), small rivers flowing from the
hills near Adelaide, rainwater collected by the population, and artesian
water).
In this regard, in Australia there are official
restrictions on the use of water (English water restrictions). They vary
greatly by region, and usually consist of several levels (Sydney city -
three levels, Queensland - 7 levels), each of which has its own
prohibitions. The easing of prohibitions (increase in the level of water
discharge) is usually associated with the beginning of the rainy season
(falls in winter, in the Southern Hemisphere - June, July, August), and
the filling of reservoirs. Examples of such bans are: a ban on washing a
car with a hose (you can only use a bucket), filling pools, watering
hard surfaces (asphalt, concrete), watering lawns from 10 am to 4 pm.
Construction of desalination plants
Due to the shortage of fresh
water in the state of South Australia, the construction of several
large-scale reverse osmosis desalination plants is planned. The
construction of similar structures is planned on the Gulf of St.
Vincent, to provide Adelaide with water.
Mining company BHP
Billiton, which plans to further expand its uranium mines (quarries)
Olympic Dam, located in the desert a few hundred kilometers north of
Spencer Bay, plans to build a large-scale desalination plant at the
northern end of the bay (Whyalla), and a main plumbing from there to his
career. According to the project, the plant will take 360,000 m3 of
water from the bay daily, producing 180,000 m3 of fresh water (120,000
m3 of water for the needs of the mining company, plus another 60,000 m3
of water for the population of the Eyre Peninsula), and discharging
180,000 .m³ of brine remaining after desalination back to the bay.
These plans are alarming local environmental organizations. They are
concerned that water intakes will suck up a lot of plankton (including
fish larvae, etc.), and that rising salinity of the water remaining in
the bays will harm underwater inhabitants, including giant Australian
cuttlefish, which gather annually for their mating games in the northern
part of Spencer Bay.
The population of Australia at the 2011 census was 21,507,719.
According to an estimate at the end of 2018 - 25,180,200 people.
Until the end of the 18th century, the population of Australia consisted
of the Australian Aborigines, the Torres Strait Islanders and the
Tasmanian Aborigines who came 40-50 thousand years ago (there are
cultural and even external differences between these three groups).
The majority of the Australian population are descendants of 19th
and 20th century immigrants, with most of these immigrants coming from
Britain and Ireland. The settlement of Australia by immigrants from the
British Isles began in 1788, when the first batch of exiles was landed
on the east coast of Australia and the first English settlement of Port
Jackson (future Sydney) was founded. Voluntary immigration from England
took on significant proportions only in the 1820s, when sheep breeding
began to develop rapidly in Australia. After the discovery of gold in
Australia, a lot of immigrants arrived here from England and partly from
other countries. For 10 years (1851-61) the population of Australia
almost tripled, exceeding 1 million people.
In the period from
1838 to 1900, more than 18 thousand Germans arrived in Australia, who
settled mainly in the south of the country; by 1890 the Germans were the
second largest ethnic group on the continent. Among them were persecuted
Lutherans, economic and political refugees - for example, those who left
Germany after the revolutionary events of 1848.
In 1901 the
Australian colonies united into a federation. The consolidation of the
Australian nation accelerated in the first decades of the 20th century,
when the national economy of Australia finally strengthened.
Australia's population has more than doubled since World War II (four
times after World War I) thanks to an ambitious program to stimulate
immigration. In 2001, 27.4% of the Australian population was
foreign-born. The largest groups among them were the British and Irish,
New Zealanders, Italians, Greeks, Dutch, Germans, Yugoslavs, Vietnamese
and Chinese.
Australia's largest city is Sydney, the capital of
the most populous state of New South Wales.
The Australian
Capital Territory is the most populous entity in the Commonwealth of
Australia with a population density of 151.49 people/km².
If you
leave the coast and proceed inland for about 200 kilometers, the
sparsely populated areas of the continent will begin. Exuberant
rainforests and rich agricultural land give way to hot, dry, open
country where only shrubs and grasses can be found. However, these areas
also have life. Vast sheep and cow pastures, known as stations, stretch
for hundreds of kilometers. Further, in the depths of the mainland, the
scorching heat of the desert begins.
The official language is
English (a dialect known as Australian English).
Australia is made up of six states, two mainland territories and
other smaller territories. The states are Victoria (VIC), Western
Australia (WA), Queensland (QLD), New South Wales (NSW), Tasmania (TAS)
and South Australia (SA). The two main mainland territories are the
Northern Territory (NT), and the Federal Capital Territory (ACT). The
status of the Territories is much like that of the States, except that
the Federal Parliament can overrule any decision of the Territorial
Parliament, while in relation to the States, Federal law takes
precedence over State law only in those cases specified in paragraph 51
of the Constitution. All other matters remain the responsibility of the
state, such as health care, education, law enforcement, public
transportation, roads, the judiciary, and local government.
Each
state and mainland territory has its own legislature: unicameral in the
Northern Territory, the Capital Territory and Queensland, and bicameral
in the rest of the states. The lower house is called the Legislative
Assembly (in South Australia and Tasmania - the Legislative Assembly),
and the upper house - the Legislative Council. State governments are
headed by premiers, and territories by chief ministers. In addition to
the Governor-General of the Union, the monarchy is also represented in
individual states by governors, and in the Northern Territory and the
Federal Capital Territory by administrators who perform functions
similar to governors.
Australia owns several territories. The
federal government controls the territory of Jervis Bay, located in New
South Wales (it is the military base and seaport of the national
capital). At the same time, several inhabited outer territories are
under the control of Australia: Norfolk Island, Christmas Island, Cocos
Islands; and several uninhabited areas: Ashmore and Cartier Islands, the
Coral Sea Islands Territory, Heard Island and the McDonald Islands, and
the Australian Antarctic Territory (a third of Antarctica). Australia's
sovereignty over the territory of Antarctica is not recognized by many
states, including Russia.
Fundamentals of the state-legal system
Australia is a federal
parliamentary constitutional monarchy. The head of state is the King of
Australia - Charles III. Australia is a Commonwealth realm, in which
supporters of the republican form of government have the strongest
positions. The basic law of the state is the constitution, approved by
Queen Victoria in 1900. Other pieces of legislation also have
constitutional force, such as the Statute of Westminster Act and the
Australia Act.
In Australia, the question of a republican form of
government is often raised. In February 1998, the Constitutional
Convention was held in Canberra, where the majority of the delegates
voted for the transformation of Australia into a republic. In 1999,
following the results of the convention, a referendum was held on the
introduction of a republican form of government. 45.13% of the
participants voted for the republic. According to a sociological survey
conducted at the end of 2005, 46% of Australians want Australia to
become a republic. Only 34% believe that the British monarch should be
the head of the country, while 52% do not want Prince Charles of Wales
to become the next king, whom only 29% of Australian citizens want to
see as the future head of the country. Many observers believed that
Queen Elizabeth II would be the last British monarch to lead the
Commonwealth of Australia. In March 2007, Australian Prime Minister John
Howard expressed doubt that Australia would become a republic while
Queen Elizabeth II reigned at that time.
Executive branch
The
head of the executive branch of government in Australia is the Prime
Minister, currently Anthony Albanese.
The formal head of state,
the King of the Commonwealth of Australia, is Charles III. The king
appoints a governor-general who has the power to intervene in the event
of a constitutional crisis, and in normal times plays an exclusively
representative role. The Governor General is also the Commander-in-Chief
of the Australian Armed Forces, representing the King in this position.
In accordance with the Australian constitution and the principle of the
Crown, despite the fact that Charles III is the king of Australia and
Great Britain in one person, his power and political influence is
exercised in completely different ways on the territory of the two
countries.
The Prime Minister is elected on behalf of the Governor General. Only
the leader of the party or coalition with majority support in the House
of Representatives always becomes prime minister. The only time a
senator became prime minister was the election of John Gorton as prime
minister, who subsequently resigned his post in the Senate and became a
member of the House of Representatives (there was also a time when
Senator George Pierce was acting prime minister for seven months in 1916
years, while William Hughes was abroad).
The Australian Cabinet
is appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the Prime Minister
of Australia. Ministers directly included in the cabinet are called
senior ministers (eng. Senior Cabinet minister). Only senior ministers
take part in cabinet meetings, although other ministers may attend if
their area of activity is on the agenda. Cabinet meetings are chaired
by the Prime Minister.
Legislature
Australia has a bicameral
federal parliament, consisting of a Senate (upper house) of 76 senators
and a House of Representatives (lower house) of 150 deputies. Parliament
also includes the King of Great Britain (represented by the Governor
General). The Australian Parliament is the sixth oldest continuous
democracy in the world.
The deputies of the lower house are
elected from single-member constituencies. Deputies are elected for 3
years by the majority electoral system of absolute majority with
preferential (preferential) voting. No state may be represented by less
than 5 deputies. In the Senate, each of the 6 states is represented by
12 senators, and each territory by two. Elections to the Senate are held
on party lists. Senators are elected for 6 years. Half of the Senate is
re-elected every three years.
The government is formed from the
deputies of the lower house, and the leader of the party (or coalition
of parties) of the majority automatically becomes the prime minister.
State symbols
The flag of Australia is a rectangular panel of
blue, which depicts three elements: the flag of Great Britain (also
known as the "Union Jack"), the Commonwealth Star (or Federation Star,
aka Hadar) and the constellation of the Southern Cross.
According
to the Flag Act, the image of the flag of Great Britain must be in the
upper left quarter of the flag[146]; an image of a large white star,
symbolizing the 6 states of Australia and other territories, in the
center of the lower left quarter, indicating the center of the flag of
St. George as part of the flag of Great Britain, and five white stars,
symbolizing the constellation of the Southern Cross, should be in the
right half of the panel.
A full description of the flag's modern
design was published in the Commonwealth Gazette in 1934.
The
coat of arms of Australia is a shield on which, from left to right, are
the coats of arms of the states: New South Wales, Victoria and
Queensland. At the bottom of the shield, from left to right: South
Australia, Western Australia, and Tasmania. Above the shield is a
seven-sided "Commonwealth Star" or Federation Star above blue and gold
wreaths. The six points of the star represent the 6 states, and the
seventh represents the totality of the territories and Australia itself.
The shield is held by kangaroos and emus. The original coat of arms was
granted by Edward VII in 1907.
Australia's national anthem is
Advance Australia Fair. Composed by Peter McCormick in 1878. This
anthem, on the recommendation of the government of Robert Hawke and with
the permission of Governor General Ninian Stephen, was replaced by the
British "God Save The Queen" in 1984.
Political parties
The
main parties in Australia are the Labor (English Australian Labor Party;
established in 1891), the Liberal (English Liberal Party of Australia;
1944) and the National (English National Party of Australia; 1916).
A coalition of the Liberal and National parties was in power from
1996 to 2007, and since 2004 has also controlled the Senate. In the
parliamentary elections of 2007, however, Labor won the majority in the
lower house, which at that time had a majority in all states and
territories of the state.
In the 2013 elections, a coalition of
Liberals, the National Party, the Liberal National Party of Queensland
and the Agrarian Liberal Party won and formed a government led by
Liberal Party leader Tony Abbott.
In order to register as a
political party, one must have a charter outlining its foundations and
at least one member of parliament or 500 members on the electoral roll.
In recent decades, Australia's foreign relations have been based on
close relations with the United States and New Zealand through the ANZUS
(Australia, New Zealand, United States Security Treaty), with Southeast
Asia through ASEAN, and Oceania through the Pacific Islands Forum. The
main efforts of the state are aimed at the liberalization of foreign
trade. Australia provides assistance to many developing countries.
The John Howard government, which was in power from 1996 to 2007,
pursued a foreign policy aimed at prioritizing relations with
Australia's traditional allies - the US and the UK - to the detriment of
support for international multilateral efforts within the UN. The
government has advocated maintaining good neighborly relations with
regional powers such as China, Japan and Indonesia, although sometimes
there are problems here - for example, the situation around East Timor.
Australia is increasing its participation in solving the internal
problems of its neighbors - Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Fiji
and Nauru.
East Timor
In mid-January 2006, more than a year
and a half negotiations between Australia and East Timor over gas and
oil fields in the Timor Sea ended. The parties signed an agreement, as a
result of which the profit from gas production will be divided according
to the 50/50 scheme. The main share in the development of the field
belongs to the Australian company Woodside Petroleum, ConocoPhilips and
Royal Dutch/Shell also participate. The demarcation of the border
between the states has not been carried out, and the parties also agreed
to postpone the border treaty for fifty years in order to begin
exploitation of a joint field located in a disputed area.
Australia is a highly developed post-industrial state. One of the few
capitalist countries that most fully embodies the principle of
laissez-faire in economic management, according to the Index of Economic
Freedom. Australia's gross domestic product per capita is slightly
higher than the UK, Germany and France at purchasing power parity. The
country was ranked second out of 170 (2009) in the Human Development
Index and sixth in quality of life by The Economist (2005). In 2011, a
record number of Australian cities were included in the magazine's top
10 most livable cities in the world, with Melbourne ranked first, Sydney
sixth, Perth eighth and Adelaide ninth.
The significant
predominance of the extractive sector of the economy over industrial
production led to a significant growth of the Australian economy at the
beginning of the century due to high resource prices. Australia's
negative balance of payments exceeds 7% of GDP, and a significant
current account deficit has been observed over the past 50 years. Over
the past 15 years, the Australian economy has grown at an average rate
of 3.7% per annum, while the global average growth was 2.5% over the
same period.
The Australian dollar is the currency of the
Commonwealth of Australia, as well as Christmas Island, Cocos Islands
and Norfolk Island. In addition, this currency is in circulation in the
independent states of Oceania - Kiribati, Nauru and Tuvalu. The
Australian Stock Exchange is the country's largest platform for trading
stocks and derivatives.
In 1983, the government of the country
turned the Australian dollar into a freely convertible currency and
partially weakened the regulation of the economic system. This was
followed by a series of reforms that led to a partial deregulation of
the labor market and further privatization of state-owned enterprises,
primarily in the telecommunications sector. The indirect tax system
underwent a significant change in July 2000 with the introduction of a
special Australian value-added tax, which somewhat reduced the reliance
on corporate and individual income taxes that characterized the
Australian tax system prior to these changes.
In January 2007,
the total number of people employed in all areas of the Australian
economy was 10,033,480, with an unemployment rate of 4.6%. Over the past
decade, inflation has not exceeded 2-3%, and base interest rates have
fluctuated within 5-6%. At the beginning of 2008, the unemployment rate
fell to 3.9%, but again reached 4.4% in December of the same year. The
service sector, which includes tourism, education and banks, accounts
for 69% of GDP. Although agriculture and the extraction of natural
resources account for only 3% and 5% of GDP, respectively, they form a
significant share of exports. According to the World Bank, in 2012
Australia ranked third in the world after the US and France in wheat
exports (17.6 million tons worth $5.7 billion). In the second half of
the 20th century, the country's economy shifted to Japan and other East
Asian countries, which became Australia's main foreign trade partners.
The main buyers of Australian products are Japan, China, the USA, South
Korea and New Zealand. Currently, Australia is actively working to
establish a free trade regime with China, the country's second largest
foreign trade partner after Japan.
According to Newsweek
magazine, the country is ranked 4th in the list of "The Best Countries
in the World". This composite indicator consists of the following
rankings: education - 13th place, health - 3rd place, quality of life -
6th place, economic dynamism - 6th place, political environment - 9th
place.
According to the World Economic Forum (World Economic
Forum), in the ranking of world competitiveness (List of the most
competitive countries in the world) for 2010-2011, Australia ranks 16th.
It occupies one of the first places in the world in terms of
electricity production per capita.
Human Resources
About 21
million people live in Australia. The share of foreign workers in the
country is 25%. In some regions of Australia there is a shortage of
workers. This is primarily due to the small population with a large area
of these areas (density H = 3 people / km²) and the fact that the
majority of the population lives on the east coast of Australia. A lot
of people from China, Vietnam, Korea work in the western part of the
country. Their number is growing rapidly.
Agriculture is one of the main branches of the Australian economy.
The share of agriculture in Australia's GDP is 3%, the volume of gross
value added in agriculture and livestock is more than 155 billion
Australian dollars. 61% of the country's area is covered by 135,996
farms and pastoral farms, combining irrigated land with rainfed fields.
There are three main agricultural zones in Australia:
a zone of
high precipitation, which includes the island of Tasmania and a narrow
coastal zone of the east coast (used mainly for dairy and meat
production);
the field zone is used for sowing winter wheat and
grazing sheep used for wool and meat;
pasture zones are characterized
by low rainfall and less fertile soil, used for grazing cattle.
Australia has a high percentage of primary production for both export
and domestic consumption. Cereals, oilseeds and legumes are grown on a
large scale for both human consumption and livestock feed. The share of
area for wheat cultivation is one of the largest in the world in terms
of area. Sugarcane is also an important crop for the Australian economy.
Australia produces a large amount of fruits, nuts and vegetables.
The main products are oranges, apples, bananas, chestnuts, potatoes,
carrots and tomatoes. The State of Queensland and the Northern Territory
are the suppliers of mangoes and pineapples.
Australia is one of
the few countries that cultivates opium poppy for pharmaceutical
purposes. Production on the island of Tasmania is under the strict
control of the state.
The total income from the export of meat is
about 996.5 million Australian dollars. The income from the export of
cattle is about 662 million Australian dollars, from the export of lamb
- 323 million Australian dollars. Indonesia is the largest consumer of
Australian meat.
One of the most important products of Australian
agriculture is wool. The Australian wool industry is recognized
worldwide for producing the highest quality mutton. Since 2001,
Australian wool production has accounted for 9% of world production. At
the same time, Australia dominates the fine wool sector, producing 50%
of the world's muton. Although sheep are raised all over Australia, 36%
of the sheep live in New South Wales.
Due to the large area of
deserts in Australia, as well as irregular rainfall, artificial
irrigation is necessary for agriculture. In addition to artificial
irrigation, the main problems facing agriculture in Australia are
drought, low soil fertility, weeds, global warming caused by climate
change, biosecurity (biological threats posed by imported products and
livestock), tariffs on Australian exports in importing countries
(particularly in Europe and Japan), currency fluctuations and price
volatility.
The chemical, electrical, metallurgical industries, and the
automotive industry are developed.
Oil and gas industry
Oil
and gas production in Australia has been carried out since .... of the
year.
Australian automotive industry
Australia is one of the
few countries that has its own companies involved in the development and
production of cars.
Transport
Transport is an essential part
of the infrastructure of the Australian economy, as the country has a
vast territory and low population density. An important role is played
by rail transport, road transport.
social infrastructure
Education
School education
The Australian school system is built
on the basis of English. In Australia, public schools predominate and
70% of schoolchildren study in them, the rest - in private (about 950
private schools operate in Australia). Some of these schools belong to
the church. Among private educational institutions there are boarding
schools that accept children from abroad starting from the 6th grade. To
enter the most prestigious schools, the child needs to be fluent in
English and pass the entrance exams.
In addition, there are
classes and separate schools for children with outstanding abilities
(selective). To enter, you must pass an entrance exam.
Australians start going to school at the age of 5. Secondary education
in Australia takes 13 years - the first year in the preparatory class
(kindergarten in New South Wales and the Capital Territory or preschool
in other states) and 12 years in school itself. After grade 10, students
make their choice and can leave school.
Higher education
There
are no entrance exams for Australian universities. Getting a place at
the university after graduation is entirely dependent on the result of
the final school examinations, reflected in the school leaving
certificate. The name of the certificate varies by state and territory,
however, regardless of the name, they all carry the same "weight" for
Australian universities.
HIV AIDS:
Among the adult population: 0.2% (as of 2007).
People
living with HIV/AIDS: 18,000 (as of 2007).
Deaths: no more than 200
(as of 2003)
Lifespan
Life expectancy in Australia ranks
fourth in the world for men and third for women. Life expectancy in
Australia in 2014-2016 was 80.4 years for men and 84.6 years for women.
Australia has the highest incidence of skin cancer in the world, while
cigarette smoking is the largest preventable cause of death and disease,
accounting for 7.8% of total mortality and disease. The second place
among the preventable causes is occupied by hypertension (7.6%), the
third - obesity - 7.5%. Australia ranks 35th in the world and is the
leader among developed countries in terms of the proportion of obese
adults, with almost two-thirds (63%) of the country's adult population
being overweight or obese.
Total health spending (including private
sector spending) is about 9.8% of GDP. Australia introduced universal
health care in 1975. Known as Medicare, it is now nominally funded by an
income tax surcharge known as the Medicare fee, which currently stands
at 2%. The states operate hospitals and their associated outpatient
services, while the Commonwealth funds the Pharmaceutical Benefit Scheme
(subsidizing the cost of drugs) and general practice.
Pension
provision
In Australia, the retirement age is 65 years. There is a
system of restrictions on the level of pension provision. 70% of
Australians receive a pension of the maximum size, but the rest of the
citizens have their pension reduced, taking into account the amount of
their income. In order to protect such citizens, the country has
introduced a system of professional pension insurance, which covers 90%
of workers. Each employee and employer is required to deduct
contributions to any of the private pension funds, and pension
contributions are not included in the tax base. The Australian pension
insurance system is mandatory and is currently considered the most
modern of all models introduced in industrialized countries.
Language
Australia has its own dialect of the English language,
informally called "string" (English strine, from the Australian
pronunciation of the word "Australian"). The English language of the
Australian aborigines stands out separately.
Written Australian
English generally follows the rules of British English (e.g. -our
(colour), -re (centre), -ise (modernise), etc.)
American
pronunciation of the English language finds its way into Australia
through popular television programs broadcast by CNN (for example, the
favorite series of young people, The Simpsons). Teenagers imitate the
pronunciation of popular TV characters.
Architecture
The
architectural styles of the colonial period were heavily influenced by
British culture. However, the need to adapt to Australia's unique
climate and the new trends of the 20th century saw the growing influence
of American urban design and the diversification of cultural tastes and
demands in an increasingly multicultural Australian society.
Well-known Australian architectural styles of residential architecture
include Queenslander (private town houses made of wood on stilts for
better air circulation and protection from termites) and Federation (was
popular from 1890-1920). In the 1960s, in connection with the ban on
demolishing historic buildings of the eighteenth century and building up
park areas, a skyscraper boom began, especially in Sydney.
Australia's UNESCO World Heritage Sites include the Sydney Opera House,
the Royal Exhibition Center and the Australian Convict Settlements.
Art
Music
One of the oldest wind instruments in the world, the
didgeridoo, was invented in Australia.
Australian alternative and
rock bands (AC / DC, Bee Gees, Nick Cave, Airbourne, INXS, Savage
Garden, Midnight Oil, etc.) have gained worldwide fame.
Australian-born pop singers include Kylie Minogue, Natalie Imbruglia,
Olivia Newton-John, Keith Urban, Danny Minogue, Darren Hayes, Gabriella
Chilmi, Jason Donovan, Jimmy Barnes, and young artist Cody Simpson.
In 2015, Australia participated in the Eurovision Song Contest for
the first time.
Dance and ballet
Graham Murphy is one of the
world's preeminent ballet directors.
Theatre
The indigenous
population of Australia did not know the theater. The first theatrical
performances in Australia, which were given by the forces of colonists
and convicts exiled from England, took place around 1780. The first
performance took place in Sydney on June 4, 1879: the convicts in the
barracks presented a play based on J. Farquhar's comedy "Recruiting
Officer".
At the beginning of the 20th century, a Jewish professional
theater was organized in Melbourne, which gave its performances in
Yiddish.
The circus
As in most European countries, there are
no permanent circus facilities in Australia. Circuses travel from city
to city, unfolding big tops on specially prepared sites. The most
popular troupes in Australia:
Circus Oz is headquartered in
Melbourne.
Cirque du Soleil - based in Quebec (Canada), the circus
currently has representation in many countries of the world, including
Australia.
The troupe, performing in various cities of Australia,
under the name Moscow Circus, has nothing to do with the Moscow circus.
Traditions and customs
British heritage:
There is left-hand
traffic on the continent, following the British model.
The sport of
cricket remains very popular.
The status of the Queen's Birthday as a
public holiday is retained. Formally, the Queen of Great Britain is
considered the head of state in Australia.
In 1984, the anthem "God
Save the Queen" was replaced by the anthem "Go Australia Beautiful".
Religion
Australia is a multi-religious country and has no
official religion. Christianity is Australia's predominant faith.
Holidays
As of 2011, public holidays (eng. Public holidays;
actually they are state holidays) are:
January 1 - New Year's Day
January 26 - Australia Day
Good Friday (Eng. Good Friday; in
Australia it is celebrated on the first Friday after the full moon or
after March 21)
Easter Monday (Eng. Easter Monday, celebrated after
Easter)
April 25 - Anzac Day
December 25 - Gregorian Christmas Day
December 26 - Boxing Day
In addition, each state has the right to
establish its own public holidays, such as the Queen's birthday, Labor
Day, ekka and others.
Two media companies in Australia are government funded: the
Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) and the Special Broadcasting
Service (SBS); both provide free-to-air broadcast on television, radio
and the Internet and are owned by the Australian government. After a
heated debate in the early 2000s, a 1992 bill was retained that
prohibited foreign firms from buying more than 20% of local television
and radio companies.
Television: Television first appeared in
Australia in 1956. Color television appeared in 1975. In addition to
public television, which is available to almost the entire population of
Australia, there are three main commercial television channels: Nine
Network, Seven Network and Network Ten, which cover most of the
country's densely populated cities. Digital broadcasting began on
January 1, 2001; analogue broadcasting was turned off in 2013.
Radio: The first radio broadcast in the country began on November 13,
1923, in Sydney. There are currently 274 commercial radio stations (due
to advertising) and 341 public radio stations (funded by the state).
Press: Daily newspapers include 2 national, 10 state/territory, 37
regional, and 470 other local and suburban newspapers. All major
newspapers are owned by either News Limited, a subsidiary of News
Corporation, or Fairfax Media.
Sport
Australia hosted the 1956
Summer Olympics in Melbourne and the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney.
The Australian armed forces are known as the Australian Defense Force
(ADF). They are made up of the Royal Australian Navy, the Australian
Army and the Royal Air Force.
The acquisition of the aircraft is
voluntary on a contract basis, the service life is limited only by the
terms of the contract.
Total number: 51.5 thousand (regular) and
19.5 thousand (reserve)
Mobilization resources: 4.9 million people
(of which 4.2 million are fit for service)
All branches of the
Australian armed forces are actively involved in peacekeeping operations
(currently East Timor and the Solomon Islands), rescue operations and
military conflicts (currently Iraq and Afghanistan).
The Prime
Minister appoints the commander-in-chief from among the commanders of
the branches of the armed forces. The Australian Defense Force is
currently commanded by Air Marshal Angus Houston. In fiscal year
2005/06, military spending was A$17.5 billion - 2% of GDP.
Naval
bases:
Sydney
Cockburn Sound
Melbourne
Air bases:
Darwin
Canberra
Laverton
richmond
Sydney
There are 16
US military facilities on the territory of the country, including a
radio communication center with SSBNs (North-Western Cape) and the
Woomera missile range.