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Language: Spanish and 36 native languages
Currency: Boliviano (BOB)
Calling Code: +59
Bolivia, officially the Plurinational State of Bolivia (Quechua,
Puliwya Achka Aylluska Mamallaqta; Aymara, WuliwyaALL Suyunakana Marka;
Guaraní, Tetã Hetvoqregua Mborívia), is a sovereign country located in
the west-central region of South America, a member The country is
organized into nine departments and one hundred and twelve provinces.
The constitutional and historical capital is Sucre, which houses the
judiciary, while the seat of Government is the city of La Paz, which
acts as the administrative capital and houses the executive, legislative
and electoral bodies. The most populous city is Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
It is bordered by Brazil to the north and east, Paraguay and
Argentina to the south, and Chile and Peru to the west. It is considered
a landlocked state and constitutionally maintains a territorial claim to
Chile for a sovereign outlet to the Pacific Ocean. However, it has an
enclave in Peru called Bolivia Mar, a beach five kilometers offshore.
Its area is the sixth most extensive in Latin America and comprises
different geographical spaces such as the Andes mountain range, the
Altiplano, the Amazon, the Moxos Plains and the Chaco, being one of the
most biodiverse countries in the world.
In its territory,
pre-Hispanic civilizations developed such as the Tiahuanaco culture, the
hydraulic culture of the Lomas, the Moxeña culture and others that
survive to the present day, such as the Aymaras, Urus, Chiquitas,
Guarani and others. The Incas conquered the western part of the present
Bolivian territory and called it Collasuyo. Subsequently, the Spanish
Empire dominated the territory, which was colloquially called as Upper
Peru, consisting of the mayors of Charcas, Cochabamba, La Paz, Potosí
and Santa Cruz. Until, in 1825, it became independent by initially
calling itself the Provinces of Upper Peru, later moving to the
Bolivarian Republic and later the Bolivian Republic.
In its
current political constitution, Bolivia declared itself a plurinational
country in recognition that several nations whose origins predate
Spanish colonization coexist on its territory.
During the last
census, conducted in 2012, it had a population of nearly 10.1 million
inhabitants.Bolivia is a multi-ethnic state, whose population includes
people of indigenous, mestizo, European, Asian and African origins.
Spanish is the predominant language, although thirty-six indigenous
languages also have official status, among which the most widely spoken
are Quechua, Aymara and Guarani.
Bolivia is a middle-income
developing country and is among the countries that have had the most
economic growth in the South American region in the last decade.It is a
founding member of the UN and a member of the IMF, OAS and Unasur. It is
in the process of joining Mercosur.
Politically, Bolivia is divided into the following
departments:
Beni in the northeast in the Amazon region
Chuquisaca
in the central-southern part, in the valley-shaped region between the
Altiplano and the lowlands
Cochabamba in central Bolivia
La Paz in
the western Altiplano with the eastern part of Lake Titicaca, the north
is occupied by the Yungas and lowlands
Oruro in the western highlands
Pando in the northwest, tropical lowland department on the border with
Peru and Brazil
Potosí in the southwest, highland department with
subtropical valleys in the east
Santa Cruz in the east, largest
department in Bolivia with rainforests in the north and savannahs in the
south
Tarija in the extreme south on the border with Argentina,
moderate altitude and Mediterranean climate
Altiplano
The Altiplano is a plateau in western
Bolivia, at an altitude of around 3,500 m - 4,00 m, bordered on the east
and west by the two cordilleras of the Andes and crossed by several
fertile valleys, the Valles, on the east. It was the traditional center
of the indigenous population and offers most of the cities and sights.
The region includes the departments of Oruro, Potosí, Cochabamba and La
Paz. The latter contains the valleys and mountain slopes between the
Altiplano and the Amazon region. This region is called Yungas and is
covered by tropical montane rainforest and cloud forest. It is one of
the most popular travel destinations among locals.
La Paz · Oruro ·
Potosí
Amazon region
The Amazon region of Bolivia is located
in the north of the country. It is a sparsely populated rainforest area
with some agricultural regions. The departments of Beni and Pando lie in
this area.
Beni · Pando
Llanos
The Llanos in southeastern
Bolivia are a wide plain characterized by dry and wet forests and are
now largely used for agriculture. The industrial and cultural center is
the city of Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The departments of Santa Cruz,
Tarija and Chuquisaca are located in this region.
Santa Cruz · Tarija
· Chuquisaca
1 La Paz – (approx. 1.8 million inhabitants including
the neighboring city of El Alto), is the seat of government and the
largest agglomeration in Bolivia. It is picturesquely located in a
mountain valley in the northeast, overlooked by snow-capped five and six
thousand meter peaks.
2 Sucre (Charcas) - (250,000 inhabitants), the
official capital, is located in the central part of the country on the
eastern slope of the Andes at about 2800 m above sea level. The
relatively green city has many beautiful old baroque buildings, it is
also called "ciudad blanca".
3 Santa Cruz de la Sierra – (1.3 million
inhabitants) is the second largest city in Bolivia and center of
business and industry. The sprawling city has few sights, but an
interesting tropical feel.
4 Cochabamba – (630,000 inhabitants), the
third largest city, lies on the eastern slope of the Andes at an
altitude of around 2500m. Called the ciudad jardín (garden city) because
of its many green spaces and its location amidst forested mountains, it
is one of the richest cities in Bolivia.
5 Oruro – (pop. 260,000) is
an important transportation and mining center. It is known for its
carnival and the still-vibrant pre-Columbian traditions; However, there
are few sights in the rather modern industrial and mining town.
6
Potosí - (175,000 inhabitants), known as the "City of Silver", the
highest city in the world (3,900 m - 4,100 m) and the largest city in
southwest Bolivia, has probably the most magnificent colonial center in
South America. It is known for the mines in Cerro Rico, where silver and
tin are mined.
7 Tarija – (180,000 inhabitants), in the south near
the border with Argentina, is known as the most “European” city in
Bolivia and an agricultural and administrative metropolis. It is located
in a very attractive mountain valley at an altitude of 1,900m and is
considered quiet and clean.
Amboró National Park is locate in Santa Cruz Department in Bolivia. Amboró National Park covers an area of 4,425 km² (1,709 sq mi).
Carrasco National Park is located in Cochabamba Department in Bolivia. This national park covers an area of 6,226 sq km.
Chulumani high in the Andes of Bolivia is famous for its deadly Road of the Death that claimed many lives.
Madidi National Park is mostly covered by dense rainforest, open savannah and Amazon river along with its many tributaries.
Noel Kempff National Park is located in Santa Cruz Department in Northeastern Bolivia. This national preserve covers an area of 15,234 sq km.
Rurrenabaque is a small town located on the banks of Beni river in Beni Department in Bolivia. The easiest way to get here is by plane.
Sajama National Park is located in Oruro Department in Bolivia. This national park covers an area of 1,002 sq km.
Ancient ruins of pre Colombian city of Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) are located in La Paz Department in Bolivia. First people came here around 1700 BC.
Torotoro National Park is located 140 km south of Cochabamba in Northern Potosí Department in Bolivia. This national park covers an area of 165 sq km.
Tunari National Park is located in the western part of Cochabamba Department in Bolivia. This national reserve covers an area of 3,090 sq km.
Entry requirements
German citizens do not need a
visa to enter the country and for a tourist stay of up to 90 days per
calendar year. Multiple entries and exits are permitted. Upon arrival at
the international airports in La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba, an
entry stamp with the entry date is usually entered in the passport, but
often no expiry date. German tourists are initially granted a residence
permit for 30 days, which can be extended twice - for 30 days each -
free of charge at the migration authority.
If you want to stay in
Bolivia for longer than 30 days and did not have a validity date stamped
on your passport upon entry, contact the migration authority Dirección
General de Migración to confirm the validity or extend your stay in
order to avoid difficulties when leaving the country .
Duty free
quantities
450 cigarettes or 500g of tobacco.
3 liters of
alcoholic beverages.
Airplane
There are airports with
international connections in La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and
Cochabamba. Today Viru Viru Airport in Santa Cruz de la Sierra is the
hub of national and international traffic and is also served by flights
from Madrid.
As the name suggests, El Alto is very high (more
than 4,000m above sea level!). Sensitive people should give preference
to Viru Viru in Santa Cruz, which is deeper and therefore has fewer
health problems. Viru Viru became increasingly important because of its
altitude compared to El Alto, pushing La Paz airport out of first place.
However, Santa Cruz is significantly further away from many attractions
- such as Lake Titicaca - than La Paz. But there are also good domestic
connections to other Bolivian cities from Santa Cruz.
The only
direct connection from Europe is offered by Iberia, Air Europa and
Boliviana de Aviación from Madrid. Otherwise, São Paulo (to Santa Cruz)
or Lima (to Santa Cruz and La Paz) are often suitable as transfer
airports.
Bolivia can be reached from other Latin American
countries, but usually only once a day or even less often. There are
direct connections from Lima, Bogotá, Santiago de Chile, Buenos Aires,
Asunción, Panama. There are now even regional connections with smaller
companies, e.g. B. to Iquique in Chile or Campo Grande in Brazil.
Train
There is currently only one weekly rail connection from
Calama (Chile) to Uyuni, operated by FCA and combined with the Expreso
del Sur. Coming from Argentina, you can get on the Expreso del Sur
heading north (to Oruro) in the border town of Villazón, which is a good
alternative to the bus. There is also a train from Yacuiba to Santa Cruz
de la Sierra. There is also a train to Santa Cruz from the town of
Puerto Suárez on the Brazilian border.
bus
In almost all cases
you have to take a bus to the border town and then change after crossing
the border, as foreign buses do not go to Bolivia. Booking through to
Bolivia from abroad is possible, but less recommended, as poor
communication leads to e.g. B. Tickets are simply not accepted. In case
of doubt, the price is not more expensive on site.
Car/motorcycle/bicycle
If you want to travel to and through Bolivia
by car, you should have an off-road vehicle if you don't just want to
use the main network's asphalted roads. There are still large stretches
of the main network that are not yet paved, particularly in the north of
the country. Tolls are required for many routes. When entering the
country, the car must be registered (require hoja de ruta), which can
take two to three days and is therefore best done in advance at the
Bolivian embassy in the country of origin.
Border crossings with
Chile
The border stations at the border triangle of
Peru/Chile/Bolivia in Tripartito and between Visviri (CHI) / Charaña
(BOL) (17° 35′ 26″ S 69° 28′ 4″ W), 205km from Arica, are very remote
and open only to cars .
The border crossing leads past the Lauca
National Park in the mountains on the CH-11 or Bolivian RN4 at the
village of Jancoaque.
Pisiga Bolivar (19° 16′ 30″ S 68° 37′ 13″ W)
The Chilean roads on the access to the Bolivian border on the RN-5 (20°
48′ 5″ S 68° 32′ 28″ W) are bad.
Parallel to the Ferrocarril de
Antofagasta a Bolivia freight railway line is the crossing on the CH-21
at Ollagüe (CHI) / Estación Avaroa (BOL) (21° 12' 46" S 68° 13' 47" W)
at 3700 m.
Border crossings with Peru
For the border crossings
at Lake Titicaca, see the section in the Peru country article.
Border crossings with Brazil
In the remote Amazon region the
crossings are:
accessible from Rio Branco
342km on the BR-317 at
the border triangle of Brazil/Peru/Bolivia.
230km on the BR-317 you
can cross one of the two mountain ranges between the Brazilian twins
Brasileia /Epitaciolândia and Cobija (11° 1′ 6′′ S 68° 45′ 13′′ W)
(BOL).
about Porto Velho (BRA) 330km to Guajará-Mirim / Guayaramerín
(10° 46′ 58′′ S 65° 20′ 22′′ W)
Near Costa Marques you can set in
Principe da Beira (BRA) over the river. On the Bolivian side, it is only
the end point of the RN-9
at Las Petas (BOL) is the La Curicha / San
Matías mountain range (16° 23′ 22′′ S 58° 20′ 11′′ W). The next largest
Brazilian region is Cáceres (Mato Grosso).
The southernmost
campsite is at Puerto Suárez , capital Puerto Quijarro (BOL) and Corumbá
Puerto Quijarro can be reached from 650km away from Santa Cruz (BOL) on
the RN-4 or by hiking. The nearest Brazilian capital is Campo Grande,
430km away.
Traveling by land in Bolivia is very cheap. Often you
can travel several hundred kilometers for just a few euros. However, you
should bring a lot of time. It sometimes happens that it takes ten hours
to cover 300 kilometers.
Larger airports can only be found in
larger cities. Many small towns have airstrips that smaller aircraft
often fly to at least once a day. Some of these are grass runways, which
unfortunately makes air traffic there extremely dependent on the
weather.
Traveling by train is a real experience, but it can also
take up a lot of time. A distinction is made between the Ferrobus, a
comparatively modern railcar that is the most comfortable and fastest
option, but it only runs on the route between Santa Cruz and Quijarro
and is about twice as "expensive" as the normal train. The Expreso
trains are long-distance trains that stop less often than those called
Regional or Mixto, but are still similarly slow and rarely reach over
50km/h. Finally, the Carril bus is a normal bus converted into a railcar
that runs on some regional routes - here the focus is more on the
"social aspect", as the villages connected in this way have no bus
connections and therefore these rail buses are an important means of
transport for the population .
The network is divided into a
western and an eastern network:
The western network serves the towns
on the Altiplano. The route Oruro - Uyuni - Atocha - Tupiza - Villazón
is currently in operation (six times a week), which is by far more
recommended than the bus route, which leads over very winding, narrow
roads. Once a week there is a connecting train to Calama in Chile.
Timetables are available on the FCA (Ferrocarril Andino) website.
The
eastern network serves the lowlands. The routes served are Santa Cruz de
la Sierra - Yacuiba (on the Argentine border) and Santa Cruz - Quijarro
(on the Brazilian border). Prices and timetables for the eastern network
around Santa Cruz can be found on the Ferroviaria Oriental website.
The bus is the most used means of transport by locals. Buses go back
and forth between all cities throughout Bolivia, but they also take time
and break down because the road network is sometimes poor. Anyone who is
used to a lot of comfort will sometimes have to cut back a bit, as these
sometimes have very old seats with relatively poor padding and little
space. Buses often don't have toilets, so you should use the few stops
and drink little on the journey! There are also enough good buses
running between the big cities. If the route is long enough, i.e. over
7-8 hours, there are often only night buses. With normal buses it can be
tiring, with semi-cama or cama the comfort can be greatly increased.
Real cama buses have 3 seats per row and about 25 seats in total. The
price is then twice as high, i.e. around two euros per hour instead of
one, but it's worth it if you arrive in the morning feeling reasonably
well rested. When traveling at night in the Altiplano, cheaper buses can
get cold despite the heating, so travel with warm clothing or a sleeping
bag in a small luggage.
During the day, shared taxis are a good
alternative to buses. They exist regionally under different names.
Sometimes they are minibuses for 7 to 15 passengers, sometimes normal
cars. They are slightly faster and more expensive than buses. They leave
when they are full. If you want to leave more quickly as a group, you
have to pay for the seats that remain vacant. For routes on which only
night buses run, it may make sense to take a shared taxi to a place
halfway along the route during the day and then take another to reach
the actual destination. Locals will be happy to tell you whether this
works.
Hitchhiking is not common in Bolivia. The locals do stop
trucks, but they charge money for a ride, about half the price of the
bus. Sometimes these trucks are the only means of transportation
available.
Traveling by car in Bolivia is still an adventure off
the main routes between the departmental capitals, as the roads are
usually only gravel (although tolls are often required) and are poorly
marked. The condition of the roads has generally improved greatly since
around 2006; there are now several multi-lane roads and there is now a
more modern alternative for the famous “Road of Death” near Coroico. You
can rent a car in the big cities, but they are hardly cheaper than in
Europe.
The official currency is the “Boliviano”. It is tied
to the US$ with a very narrow fluctuation range at a rate of 0.145.
In Bolivia, civil servants earn their money Monday to Friday from
8:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., at least in government and public offices. The
usual business hours are Monday to Friday 9:30 a.m. - 1:00 p.m. and 3:00
p.m. - 8:00 p.m., some shops are open until 9:00 p.m. or 10:00 p.m., but
a few are open all night. On Saturdays it is open from 9:00 a.m. to 1:00
p.m. or later. Banks and exchange offices open Monday to Friday from
8:30 a.m. to 6:00 p.m. and Saturday from 10:00 a.m. to 1:00 p.m.
It should be noted that there are supermarkets only in the largest
cities. In all other areas you still rely on corner shops and, above
all, markets. However, a visit to these markets is an experience in
itself, as everything imaginable is on offer here. The religious
artifacts are particularly curious, e.g. B. Llama fetuses for sacrifice.
The Bolivians eat very spicy food, especially in the
higher areas, but the appropriate spices and sauces are often put on the
table. Warning: they are really spicy!
Popular specialties
include picante de pollo (chicken with peppers and rice) and similar
dishes with beef, sheep and llama meat. Pique Macho is a mixture of
potatoes, beef, sausages and vegetables. Humitas is corn porridge
wrapped in corn leaves. Salteñas are filled dumplings similar to
Argentine empanadas.
Roughly speaking, there are three types of
restaurants: those with an international character and cuisine, where
only the rich can afford to eat and which are only available in large
cities. In tourist towns there are also restaurants specifically aimed
at foreign guests, such as: B. American-style pizzerias and fast food
restaurants, which are also rather high in price. Then there are simpler
restaurants where mainly locals eat and where regional specialties are
offered. These are very cheap and you can often talk to the waiters and
make contact with the locals. Thirdly, there are also canteens in all
markets. They are unrivaled in terms of price, but are sometimes
questionable in terms of hygiene. If you have a sensitive stomach, you
shouldn't eat there.
Bolivians love to go out dancing. Every small town has
bars and discos. Karaoke bars in particular are very popular among
Bolivians. Folklore peñas and folklore events are also very common,
where traditional Andean folklore music is played. European-style
“lounges,” on the other hand, can only be found in large cities.
Music of all genres is played in the discos. Even in small villages you
can hear hip hop or industrial. However, Latin American music styles
such as salsa, merengue, cumbia and cuarteto seem to be the most
popular; Latin hip hop is also common.
What takes some getting
used to is that many discos in smaller towns don't sell alcohol, but
instead have a stand where you can buy lollipops and sweets. Sometimes
alcohol (usually just beer) is sold directly on the dance floor from a
freezer. The way to dance in a disco is also strange: people generally
dance in rows, so you stand in a row and then choose a partner from the
opposite row. If you don't find one, you walk in a circle around the
rows of dancers and look for a new one. But you shouldn't overdo it with
the "hitting on" as the Bolivians in smaller towns are generally more
conservative.
In big cities, on the other hand, there is a
nightlife that is comparable to European standards, where people dance
"normally", i.e. individually. The techno scene is up and coming and,
along with Argentina, is one of the best in South America, particularly
in Cochabamba, La Paz and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
Overall, hotels, guesthouses and other accommodations
are very cheap and often comfortable in tourist resorts and cities. You
can often find very adventurous accommodation in the countryside, but
you shouldn't let these put you off as the friendliness and the food are
usually unbeatable.
Camping is not very popular in Bolivia. There
are very few organized campsites, but free camping is possible on
private land, for example. B. from farmers when there is demand, it is
usually not a problem. This hospitality should be rewarded with small
gifts or some money.
Eight years of compulsory schooling have existed in Bolivia since 1998 and are financed by public and private funds. Good schools are mainly located in large cities such as Sucre, La Paz, Cochabamba or Santa Cruz.
There are a lot of pickpockets in tourist cities. You
should take very good care of your luggage and valuables and never allow
yourself to be distracted by local people on the street, as these are
usually tricks for stealing. You should be particularly careful at bus
or train stations. You should also avoid particularly poor suburbs of
big cities; El Alto near La Paz is particularly notorious.
Money
should never be exchanged on the street, but only in exchange offices,
as you almost only receive notes and the number of these usually never
corresponds to the actual exchange rate. But the changers have long
since disappeared by the time you're done counting.
Despite these
risks, the crime rate is comparatively low and one of the lowest in all
of South America; according to a United Nations study, the murder rate
is 2.8 per 100,000 inhabitants, lower than in Switzerland. Armed
robberies in particular are very rare.
Since January 2006,
Bolivia has been in the Austrian media several times in connection with
the kidnapping and murder of two Austrians and other scams by fake
police officers. In La Paz, the police are fighting several gangs of
fraudsters targeting tourists who work in groups and are extremely
clever. One of the nastiest scams is that one of the thieves poses as a
tourist looking for a place to visit. After a short conversation, he
either offers to share a taxi (which is driven by an accomplice) or a
fake police officer joins in as a third party, who identifies himself
with a false ID card and pretends to be taking both tourists (the real
one and the one) because of a petty crime incorrect) to drive to the
station to be checked. Here too, the driver is an accomplice - the
robbery, often including emptying the account at the ATM, is not long in
coming. In order not to fall for this trick, you have to know that the
Bolivian police usually do not control tourists in this way, but rather
behave cooperatively. A tip given is to loudly insist on being
transported in a patrol car if necessary in order to draw the attention
of passers-by, and under no circumstances to get into private cars and
taxis that have more people in them than the driver himself.
Medical care is generally very good in large cities.
However, you should have cash available, as billing directly through
your health insurance company or other insurance companies is usually
not possible. In rural areas, medical care is quite poor. Anyone who has
problems with the thin air in the highlands should always carry an
oxygen device with them.
To curb the effects of altitude sickness
(e.g. nausea, headaches), drinking a cup of coca tea (mate de coca)
helps wonders. It has no intoxicating effects, is very healthy and you
can get it on every corner. Otherwise: walk slowly, especially on
inclines. If you are sensitive, you should definitely not travel to the
plateau by plane, but rather by bus or train and in stages.
The climate is generally subtropical to tropical, but
temperatures and rainfall depend on altitude.
On the Altiplano,
the plateau, it is cool all year round with large temperature
fluctuations between day and night. During the day it can reach up to
25°C and at night temperatures can reach around freezing point. The
rainy season is generally in (southern) summer, but the climate
southwest of Potosí is very dry.
The Llanos, the plains of
southeastern Bolivia, have a subtropical climate with very hot summers
(35°C - 40°C during the day) and mild, spring-like warm winters (20°C -
30°C). Here too, rain usually only falls in summer; it only rains more
frequently in winter on the mountain slopes of the Yungas, the
transition region to the Altiplano.
Northern Bolivia lies in the
tropical Amazon plain. Rain often falls all year round and there are
hardly any temperature fluctuations between summer and winter; in all
seasons you can expect 25°C - 35°C per day and high humidity. However,
it almost never gets hotter.
It is important to be particularly careful when taking
photos. Some locals, especially indigenous people, are still skeptical
about taking photos and can seem quite aggressive towards them. In
tourist cities, taking photos of people is usually not a problem if you
ask first “Puedo sacar una foto de Usted?” Maybe you should have a few
more coins ready. Be careful, however, because you can offend someone
with it.
Indians should never be called “Indios” as this is
considered as racist as “nigger” in the USA. The term should be banned
from the vocabulary and replaced by “Indígenas”, which is not seen as
discriminatory. Rural Indians are also simply called “campesinos”
(“farmers”).
Overall, Bolivians often dress quite formally and
smartly, especially in cities - especially the youth. In the
countryside, however, you can often find traditional clothing.
Bolivians, like most South Americans, are quite conservative about
nudity.
As in many other poor countries in the world, almost
every small village in Bolivia has an Internet café or at least a
telephone booth with a fax machine. For locals, these means of
communication are usually the only way to communicate quickly and easily
with the “outside world”.
Cell phones now work very well in big
cities (tri-band!). In the cities, street vendors (yellow vest!) offer
calls on their cell phones. This is very cheap and practical, especially
for national calls.
The name Bolivia is a derivation of the paternal
surname of the liberator Simón Bolívar. During the viceregal period, as
part of the viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, the upper geographical
area was called Upper Peru. After the proclamation of independence from
the Spanish Empire on August 6, 1825, the Deliberative Assembly approved
on the 11th of the same month the law of awards and honors to the
Liberators, the first article of this law indicated that the new State
would receive the name "Republic of Bolívar". Months later the name was
modified, without a resolution from the Deliberative Assembly, when the
argument proposed by the deputy of Potosí, Presbítero Manuel Martín
Cruz, was accepted, who said the following: "If from Rómulo, Rome ; from
Bolívar, Bolivia." The new Republic officially adopted the name Bolivia
on October 3, 1825.
Bolívar, after being appointed president and
protector by the Deliberative Assembly, rejecting the first and assuming
the second as supreme manager of the Executive Branch (protector of the
Republic), baptized Bolivia as his "Favorite Daughter" and pronounced
the following proclamation:
My despair increases when I
contemplate the immensity of your prize, because after having exhausted
the talents, the virtues, the very genius of the greatest of heroes, I
would still be unworthy of deserving the name that you have wanted to
give you, mine! I will speak of gratitude, when it will never be able to
express even weakly what I experience for your goodness that, like that
of God, surpasses all limits! Yes: only God had the power to call that
land Bolivia...
What does Bolivia mean? An unbridled love of
freedom, that when your rapture received it, did not see anything that
was equal to its value. Finding your drunkenness no adequate
demonstration of the vehemence of her feelings, she tore away your name,
and gave mine to all your generations. This, which is unprecedented in
the history of centuries, is even more so in the history of sublime
detachments. Such a trait will show to the times that are in the thought
of the Eternal, what you longed for the possession of your rights, which
is the possession of exercising political virtues, of acquiring luminous
talents, and the enjoyment of being men. This trait, I repeat, will
prove that you were entitled to obtain the great blessing of Heaven—the
Sovereignty of the People—the only legitimate authority of the Nations."
Simon Bolivar
In 2009, a new constitution changed the country's
official name to the "Plurinational State of Bolivia" in recognition of
the multi-ethnic nature of the country and the enhanced position of
Bolivia's indigenous peoples under the new constitution.
In the current Bolivian territory, ancient pre-Columbian cultures such as Tiahuanaco, the Hydraulic Culture of the Lomas and the Inca Empire developed throughout history. Later, the Spanish Empire dominated the territory until the country became independent in 1825, the year after which it adopted the name Bolivia. Having inherited the traditions of colonial miscegenation and pre-Columbian cultures, it is a multiethnic and pluricultural country, rich in the mix of traditions and folklore of mestizo, indigenous, white inhabitants descended from Creoles, Afro-Bolivians, and to a lesser extent, European and American migrants. Asians.
In Bolivia, evidence of human occupation has been
found since 12,000 BC - 10,000 BC in the Viscachani site. Until 1200 BC
sedentary cultures develop in the highlands. From this date on, the
Chiripa and Wankarani cultures are the two most important of the
formative period.
The Tiwanaku culture, near Lake Titicaca, marks
a moment of cultural flowering in the highland area. For the historian
and archaeologist Carlos Ponce Sanginés, around 1100 AD the continuous
drought of Lake Titicaca leads to a drop in agricultural production that
would lead to a bloody civil war that would bring about the dissolution
of Tiwanaku and the formation of small regional states that this
researcher identifies with the Aymara lordships.
Evidence of
settlement patterns in the Tiahuanaco valley, found by the Bolivian
archaeologist Jordán Albarracín, would reveal the continuity "Tiwanaku
and post-Tiwanaku", later the American Janusek J. W. would reveal
ceramic evidence corresponding to the time of the Aymara lordships, with
a technique evidently Tiahuanacota ceramics, implying the dissolution of
the Tiahuanacota state in Aymara kingdoms, these "Aymara kingdoms" would
have inherited the Aymara cultural base of Tiahuanaco, later this
ceramics would undergo a transition process to "Aymara-lordships"
ceramics.
The Aymara lordships would establish a regional domain
that covers parts of southeastern Peru and western Bolivia. Within the
lordship organization, the kingdoms stand out: pacajes, collas and
lupaqas.
The dominion of the Colla Kingdom of the Aymaras lasted
until 1438, when the Inca Pachacutec incorporated the Bolivian highlands
into the Tahuantinsuyo.
During later periods, the Incas
unsuccessfully attempted to conquer eastern Bolivia (in general, they
did not venture much into the jungle that bordered their vast empire),
which was inhabited by ethnic groups of Amazonian lineages (some of whom
have mixed ancestry of migrants from Oceania) and pampids who were
mainly hunter-gatherers, highlighting the Chanés and Guaraníes,
derogatorily called "Chiriguanos" by the Incas. In the Inca Empire of
Huayna Cápac, fortresses were built to stop the advance of the
Chiriguanos.
In the eastern regions of Moxos and Baures, between
the 4th centuries BC and XIII AD., the Hydraulic Culture of Las Lomas
was developed.
The first European to enter the current territory of
Bolivia was the Portuguese Alejo García in 1520 in the service of the
Crown of Castile, who, after being shipwrecked and stranded on the
southern coast of present-day Brazil, lived with the Guaraní indigenous
people and heard news of barbarian beings dressed in armor roaming the
Andes and about "the White King and the legend of the Sierra de la
Plata", he decided to go on an expedition, he crossed the Chaco and
ascended until he reached Mizque, later he arrived at the Sierra de la
Plata. Plata (Porco), and seized several valuable things, on his return
he was killed after an ambush by Payagua Indians. The first Spaniard who
arrived in these lands was Diego de Almagro, after leaving Cuzco in
order to conquer Chile, he traveled through the Altiplano following the
path of the Inca. With Almagro dead, Francisco Pizarro sent his brother
Gonzalo to conquer the Collasuyo region and, together with 80 Spanish
men and thousands of allied Indians, among them the Aymaras of the
Titicaca area, they faced the Aymara Indians of the southern Altiplano
under command from Tiso Yupanqui in Pocona; Gonzalo, having victory over
them and the alliance of the Aymara of Yupanqui, was directed by a
curaca of the Charcas, also leader of the Yamparas and Cara-Caras,
towards the Puquina-Aymara manor of the Yampara (north of Chuquisaca)
and He offered them to settle there to confront the Ava Guaraníes, this
in mid-1538. Gonzalo Pizarro, after organizing his settlement, was
informed by a cara-cara curaca about the existence of a hill with
minerals in the west. In the Cara-Cara manor, he decided to explore it
and found the current Porco hill. After the exploration, he built his
settlement in the town of Guaya Paccha (near the town of Chuquiochata)
and erected a chapel, this as a demonstration that it was a important
settlement. It was determined that all the regions of the Yamparas would
be called the "Pueblo de los Charcas" or "Province of the Charcas", he
left for Lima to be granted the foundation permit in the area, but,
circumstantially, it was ordered to Pedro Anzúrez de Camporredondo to do
the same, and founded La Plata (current Sucre) on April 16, 1540, in the
town of Chuquiochata.
After the founding of La Plata, the
province of Charcas was officially established, to which Potosí joined,
which arose after the possession of Cerro Rico in 1545; La Paz was
founded in 1548 and Cochabamba in 1571. In 1559 the Spanish court of the
Royal Court of Charcas was founded, and its judicial district was
initially the territories of the province of Charcas, but later the
governorate of Tucumán was incorporated into it. of Moxos (renamed Santa
Cruz de la Sierra, founded in 1560 and its homonymous capital in 1561)
in 1563 and that of Nueva Andalucía del Río de la Plata in 1566. In 1671
the Royal Court of Buenos Aires was founded, the jurisdiction of this It
was the governorship of the Río de la Plata (or Buenos Aires), Paraguay
and Tucumán, but this royal court became extinct in 1671, and its
judicial district was reintegrated into the Court of Charcas, but the
Court of Buenos Aires was reestablished on 1785, having as jurisdiction
the territories already mentioned.
The Spanish conquest was
characterized by presenting a mining-agricultural base. The city of
Potosí, the most populated in America in 1574 (120,000 inhabitants),
became a large mining center due to the exploitation of the silver mines
of Cerro Rico de Potosí and in 1611 it was the largest producer of
silver in the world. King Charles I had granted this city the title of
imperial town after its foundation.
Potosí began its decline in
the last decades of the 18th century when silver mining remained in a
state of stagnation, as a consequence of the depletion of the richest
veins, antiquated extraction techniques and the diversion of trade to
other countries. With the arrival of the House of Bourbon to the Spanish
Crown in 1700, the institution of the Encomienda was deepened to reverse
the decline of the mining economy, imposing greater rigor on the work of
the mita and the indigenous tribute.
By order of King Carlos III,
in 1776 the territories of the governorates of Buenos Aires, Paraguay,
Tucumán and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, the district of Cuyo (which until
then belonged to the Kingdom of Chile) and the province of Charcas,
which Until then they were part of the viceroyalty of Peru, they were
segregated from this viceroyalty and formed the viceroyalty of the Río
de la Plata, with its capital in the city of Buenos Aires.
Between 1779 and 1781 there were indigenous uprisings
led by Tomás Katari, Túpac Amaru II and Túpac Katari who opposed the
excessive collection of taxes, the abuses of the mita and the ignorance
of other rights. These uprisings were controlled by the army and guard
of the viceroyalty.
The uprisings of the cities of La Plata (or
Charcas, currently Sucre, capital of Bolivia) on May 25, 1809 and La Paz
on July 16, 1809 and because of them, they formed their own boards of
provisional governments, these uprisings They are part of the Spanish
American wars of independence that emerged in both Spain and Latin
America after the Napoleonic invasion of Spain in 1808. Both boards were
dissolved at the end of 1810, that of La Paz (Junta Tuitiva) by José
Manuel de Goyeneche during his military campaign and that of La Plata
(Audiencia Governora) by Vicente Nieto. Since 1810, starting with the
May Revolution that occurred in the city of Buenos Aires and adopting
the provisional government board as the system of government at the
headquarters, like the government boards of La Plata and La Paz, it was
in support of the King Ferdinand VII (see: Mask of Ferdinand VII). The
subsequent uprisings in the towns and cities that make up current
Bolivia were in favor of the Junta of Buenos Aires, from 1810 until 1820
three Argentine auxiliary expeditions followed one another, including
that of Ignacio Warnes in the province of Santa Cruz de la Sierra;
Despite this and the efforts of the regional commands or republiquetas,
(the most successful in this sense being the republiqueta of Ayopaya),
the royalists tenaciously disputed control until the death of Pedro
Antonio Olañeta (named the last post-mortem viceroy of the Río de la
Silver).
On July 10, 1825, the founding process of the country
began through several sessions and debates by the General Assembly of
Deputies of the Provinces of Upper Peru, with two currents existing: the
annexationist (union to Peru or Buenos Aires) and the autonomist. On
July 28, the discussions on the currents ended, and the vote was taken
with three options: annexation to the Government of Buenos Aires,
annexation to the Republic of Peru, and absolute independence—the
provinces form a republic; The first option did not have any votes, the
second option obtained two votes from La Paz deputies, and the last
option obtained the majority vote. On August 3, the founding act was
already written, although the founding act was planned to be held on the
same day, it was decided to take place within three days, this to
commemorate the anniversary of Simón Bolívar's victory in the battle of
Junín in Peru. On August 6, 1825, the founding act was carried out,
officially declaring independence under the name of the State of Upper
Peru, after a debate, on August 11 it adopted the name of the Republic
of Bolívar, which was changed on October 3 to Republic of Bolivia.
"The world knows that Upper Peru has been, on the American
continent, the altar where the first blood of the free was spilled and
the land, where the tomb of the last of the tyrants exists... The
sovereign representation of the provinces of the Alto Perú, deeply
penetrated by the greatness and immense weight of its responsibility
towards heaven and earth, in the act of pronouncing the future fate of
its clients, stripping itself for the sake of justice of all spirit of
partiality, interest and views private; having implored, full of
submission and respectful ardor, the paternal assistance of the holy
Maker of the world, and calmed in the depths of his conscience by the
good faith, detention, justice, moderation and profound meditations that
preside over this resolution, declares only in the name and absolute
power of their worthy representatives: That the fortunate day has
arrived when the unalterable and ardent vows of Upper Peru, to
emancipate themselves from the unjust, oppressive, and miserable power
of King Ferdinand VII, corroborated with the blood of their children,
record with the solemnity and authenticity that at present, and that the
degrading condition of the Colony of Spain ceases for this privileged
region along with all dependence, both on it and on its current and
subsequent monarchs: that consequently, and being at the same time At
the same time, interesting to their happiness, they did not associate
themselves with any of the neighboring republics, they erected
themselves a sovereign State independent of all nations, both of the old
and the new world; and the departments of Upper Peru, firm and unanimous
in this just and magnanimous resolution, protest to the face of the
entire earth, that their irrevocable will is to govern themselves, and
to be governed by the constitution, laws and authorities that they
themselves given and believed to be more conducive to their future
happiness as a nation, and the unalterable support of their holy
Catholic religion, and of the sacrosanct rights of honor, life, liberty,
property and security."
Jose Mariano Serrano
In 1826, the liberator Simón Bolívar granted the
country the first Constitution, which was approved by the Congress of
Chuquisaca. Subsequently, Antonio José de Sucre, Grand Marshal of
Ayacucho, was elected at the end of the year as president of the
Republic of Bolivia.
General Sucre is the Father of Ayacucho: he is
the redeemer of the children of the Sun;
He is the one who has broken
the chains with which Pizarro wrapped the empire of the Incas.
Posterity will represent Sucre with one foot in Pichincha and the other
in Potosí,
carrying in his hands the cradle of Manco-Capac
and
contemplating the chains of Peru broken by his sword.
Simon Bolivar
Since its emancipation, Bolivia plunged into a chronic state of
revolutions and civil wars. The first fifty years of the Republic were
characterized by political instability and constant external threats
that put its independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity at
risk. In 1825, months before the founding of the country, the governor
of the province of Chiquitos, requested Brazilian support from the
governor of Mato Grosso, proposing the annexation of the province to the
Empire of Brazil. In April 400 Brazilian soldiers occupied Chiquitos,
and a letter was sent to Antonio José de Sucre about the annexation; on
May 11, Marshal Sucre sent an ultimatum, threatening to send the
liberating Army to expel the invaders. The Brazilians withdrew at the
end of the month, while the king of Brazil only became aware of the
event in August and repudiated the intentions of the governor of Mato
Grosso. Subsequently, there was the invasion of Peruvian troops in 1828,
led by Agustín Gamarra and whose main objective was to force the
departure of the troops from Gran Colombia. The conflict ended with the
Treaty of Piquiza and the Peruvian withdrawal from Bolivian soil after
achieving the resignation of President Sucre and the establishment of a
government without Bolivarian influence.
In 1829, after the end of Colombian influence in
Bolivia, and faced with the threat of anarchy, Congress brought to power
the first indigenous president of Bolivia, Andrés de Santa Cruz, born in
La Paz, and marshal of Zepita (title granted by the Peruvian government,
of whose country he was president of the Government Council between 1826
and 1827).
Santa Cruz swore the provisional Presidency of Bolivia
on May 24, 1829; That same day he promulgated an amnesty law and
repealed the Lifetime Constitution of 1826. Santa Cruz was the main
forger and organizer of the Bolivian State, he promoted a series of
reformist measures, pacified the country, reorganized the Bolivian Army,
restructured the battered finances and made improvements in the economic
and educational field.
Under the Bolivian bonanza, in 1837, the
Peru-Bolivian Confederation was formed, which reunified Peru and
Bolivia, having Marshal Santa Cruz as its protector (according to a
letter from 1829, he already had a clear dream of converting Bolivia in
the Macedonia of South America, seeking to reunify the Andean world; in
1829 he had married the Cuzco lady Francisca Cernadas).
The
Peru-Bolivian Confederation fails to consolidate because mainly Chile,
in addition to the Argentine Confederation and non-majority groups of
both Peruvians (in exile and opposed to the project) and Bolivians
supported by economic groups from Chuquisaca (a city that posed a
rivalry) commercial to La Paz) who intervene, unleashing the War against
the Peru-Bolivian Confederation. In the first phase of the war, the
Confederation is victorious, forcing the Chilean army to capitulate (see
Treaty of Paucarpata), but in the second phase, the Confederate army is
defeated in the Battle of Yungay, a situation that defines the
dissolution of the Confederation. and the overthrow of Santa Cruz in
1839. On the southern front, the Bolivian army, under the command of
General Otto Philipp Braun, defeats the Argentine Confederation in the
Battle of Montenegro, achieving its withdrawal.
After the
disappearance of the Peru-Bolivian Confederation, Bolivia experienced a
period of anarchy and political confrontations between supporters and
opponents of the union with Peru. The Peruvian president Agustín
Gamarra, ideologist of the annexation of Bolivia to Peru, taking
advantage of the situation decided to invade Bolivian territory,
occupying several areas of the department of La Paz. Faced with this
circumstance, José Ballivián, while in Peru, gathered a small troop of
rebels, tried to penetrate Bolivia through La Paz but his enemy Manuel
Isidoro Belzu intervened, who confronted Ballivián and ended up winning.
Ballivián decided to join Gamarra to invade. Bolivia, but he had to help
him defeat Belzu.
With Gamarra and his army in Bolivian
territory, José Miguel de Velasco would be summoned to face the
situation and was proclaimed by his followers as president and stationed
in Cochabamba, Balliviá was proclaimed president by his followers in La
Paz, while the legitimate, Mariano Enrique Calvo, was in Sucre.
Ballivián was disillusioned by the unfulfilled offers by Gamarra, and
decided to seek help to form an army, since he commanded a small, novice
and disorganized troop. Velasco, known as the Republican, being an enemy
of Ballivián, decides to unite against a common enemy, and cedes his
superior and veteran army to Ballivián.
On November 18, 1841, the
Battle of Ingavi took place, in which the Bolivian army defeated the
Peruvian troops of Gamarra (who died in the battle). After the victory,
Bolivia invades Peru, and various fronts of struggle open in southern
Peru. The Bolivian Army did not have enough troops to maintain the
occupation. In the Battle of Tarapacá, Peruvian Montoneros formed by
Major Juan Buendía, defeated on January 7, 1842 the detachment led by
Colonel José María García, who died in the confrontation. Thus, the
Bolivian troops vacated Tacna, Arica and Tarapacá in February 1842,
retreating towards Moquegua and Puno.
The fighting in Motoni and
Orurillo expelled and subsequently initiated the withdrawal of the
Bolivian forces that occupied Peruvian territory, once again threatening
Bolivia with an invasion. After that, the Treaty of Puno was signed.
As happened with the majority of countries that became
independent from Spain, since its founding, Bolivia maintained
territorial disputes with all its neighbors, which implied the
persistence of conflicts that in the case of Chile and Brazil were
settled through war conflicts.
In the case of Chile, diplomatic
attempts to resolve territorial disputes resulted in the signing of the
treaties of 1866 and 1874, in relation to the Atacama Desert, rich in
deposits of sodium nitrates and copper. In them, the 24° parallel of
south latitude was adopted as the boundary line between both countries.
In addition, various tariff rights and mining concessions were granted
to Chilean businessmen in the area. These last provisions gave rise to a
subsequent conflict when the Bolivian authorities decided to apply a
higher tariff tax for saltpeter extraction to the saltpeter companies
with Chilean-British capital. On February 14, 1879, Chile invaded
Antofagasta, starting the so-called War of the Pacific in which Bolivia
and Peru confronted Chile and whose outcome was the total loss by
Bolivia of its coastline, leaving it without sovereign access to the
coast ever since. sea. The Bolivian coastline covered around 158,000 km²
and included Antofagasta, Mejillones, Cobija and Tocopilla as the main
towns. With the treaty of 1904, Bolivia lost all rights to the sea as it
was imposed by Chile's dominance of the disputed territory.
With
Brazil, there was initially a diplomatic solution with the treaty of
1867. But in 1899 the Acre War took place, the final result of which
involved the transfer of 191,000 km² to Brazil through the treaty of
1903.
In the cases of Argentina and Peru, solutions were reached
through diplomatic means. Treaties were signed with Argentina in 1898
and 1925, while a definitive boundary treaty was reached with Peru in
1909. According to Bolivian historiography, these treaties involved
ceding the territories of Puna de Atacama and Formosa to Argentina and
ceding 250,000 to Peru. km² between the Madre de Dios and Purus rivers
in the Amazon.
Between 1880 and 1900 the Conservative Party governed,
whose main leaders were Aniceto Arce and Mariano Baptista. During this
period, the Bolivian economy was supported mainly by the silver mining
industry, which had reached international levels of capitalization,
technological development, and efficiency, and whose main exporter was
the Huanchaca Mining Company. Conservative governments confront the
socioeconomic consequences of defeat in the Pacific War, the Acre War
and the Federal War in which they lose political power to the liberals.
The Liberal Party governed during the so-called tin era (1900-1920),
a metal that replaced silver as the main source of foreign currency and
whose export was the engine of Bolivian economic development for much of
the 20th century. Elected governments are those that administer the
State and modernize sectors such as railways and finance; They urbanized
the cities of La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro and laid the foundations for
the formation of the Bolivian educational system with, for example, the
founding of the first Normal de Maestros in Sucre in 1909. The liberals
must face the Acre War and the signing of the 1904 Treaty that ends up
sealing Bolivia's Mediterranean status. In this period, the so-called
"tin barons" exerted great influence, whose outstanding figure was the
mining businessman Simón I. Patiño, who became one of the richest men in
the world.
In the 1920 elections, the Republicans defeated the
liberals and Bolivia moved from a two-party system to a multi-party
system. Starting in 1920, the country experienced periods of strong
internal social and political tensions. This year the first socialist
parties were established and the first agitations caused by European
Marxist thought soon occurred. At the same time, the first modern labor
and social legislation in the history of Bolivia was developed. The
political tension, the economic crisis resulting from the oscillations
of the tin market and the government's over-indebtedness, plus the
arrival of the Great Depression in 1929 led to the deterioration of the
political class and the beginning of the Chaco War.
The Bolivian-Paraguayan border problem centered on the
Chaco Boreal, a lowland area located north of the Pilcomayo River and
west of the Paraguay River, which extends to the Aguaragüé mountain
ranges. Both countries claimed said territory partially or totally.
On September 9, 1932, the Chaco War broke out, officially declared
by Paraguay on May 10, 1933, which lasted three years and in which
around 65,000 Bolivians and 30,000 Paraguayans died, thus becoming the
war conflict. between two nations with the highest casualties in
America, only surpassed by the American Civil War. On July 21, 1938, the
Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Limits was signed, according to which
75% of the Chaco Boreal region was attributed to Paraguay. The outcome
of the war deeply questioned the relevance of national structures and
institutions and marked the end of the political party system in force
until then.
Between 1935 and 1946, Bolivia was governed by
nationalist soldiers who had been protagonists of the Chaco War. Ideas
for change are beginning to emerge aimed at including the indigenous
sector, promoting the integration of the east of the country and
reversing the profits from mining and hydrocarbons in favor of the
State. Unions of miners and workers emerge and gather around the Central
Obrera Boliviana (COB).
In the presidential elections of 1951,
the exiled leader of the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement (MNR),
Víctor Paz Estenssoro, achieved almost half of the votes cast. However,
the political-mining elite tries to prevent the election of Víctor Paz
Estenssoro and President Mamerto Urriolagoitia hands over the government
to a military junta headed by General Hugo Ballivián. In April 1952,
multiple popular uprisings took place that gave rise to the National
Revolution, a process of transformations in citizen participation, land
distribution, State control over natural resources and the Bolivian
economy.
Paz Estenssoro returns from exile to assume the
presidency. Under his leadership, the government undertakes a broad
program of economic reforms: it decrees the nationalization of the mines
and the monopoly on the export of tin, the agrarian reform (parceling of
land to distribute among the indigenous people), the prospecting for oil
wells by foreign companies. , the institution of universal suffrage (it
did not exist until that time), the educational reform and the road link
with the east (Cochabamba-Santa Cruz highway).
At the end of the
1950s, the Bolivian economy suffered from the continuous decline in tin
prices in world markets and high inflation rates. Tin mines are
unprofitable, and government efforts to reduce the number of state
employees and restrict wages are met with resistance from unions. In
1956, another protagonist of the National Revolution, Hernán Siles
Zuazo, won the presidential elections.
Siles continued the policy
initiated by the government of Paz Estenssoro, who was elected president
again in 1960. In his second term, Paz Estenssoro requested the drafting
of a new Constitution to increase the economic authority of the
government and allow the re-election of he. In 1964 he was re-elected,
naming the head of the Air Force, René Barrientos Ortuño, as vice
president. This event ends up disintegrating the MNR and Paz Estenssoro
is overthrown a month after his re-election as a result of an uprising
led by miners and students. A military junta headed by its vice
president, General René Barrientos, took over power.
The military government of René Barrientos carries out
economic development policies that allow the return of foreign
investment to the tin mining industry. In 1966, Barrientos submitted to
the vote as a civilian, obtaining his election as president. During his
administration he maintained an alliance with the military and peasants,
but confronted the miners and workers. In 1967 a new Constitution was
promulgated. That same year, the Ñancahuazú Guerrilla led by Ernesto Che
Guevara broke out and was defeated by the Bolivian Army.
After
Barrientos' death in a helicopter accident in 1969, a series of
short-lived governments followed, most of them military, with the
left-wing government of Juan José Torrez standing out, who resumed
relations with Cuba and Chile (then with the left-wing president
Salvador Allende). He tried to create a co-government with the Bolivian
Workers' Central. He expelled some United States organizations from
Bolivia. On August 21, 1971, Colonel Hugo Banzer Suárez leads a coup
that overthrows Juan José Torres.
Banzer's dictatorial regime is
aligned with the anti-leftist current of the military governments of
Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay, forming part of the
Condor Plan. The labor movement is suppressed and the civil rights of
the population are suspended. The de facto government is supported
economically by the high prices of tin and hydrocarbons, as well as by
high external debt. In 1978, Bánzer resigned after a long hunger strike
initiated by women miners who led and participated in social
organizations.
On July 17, 1980, General Luis García Meza carried
out a coup d'état with the support of paramilitaries recruited by the
Nazi criminal Klaus Barbie and the Italian terrorist Stefano Delle
Chiaie, overthrowing the interim constitutional president Lidia Gueiler
Tejada, and thus preventing that the winner of the elections Hernán
Siles Zuazo assumes the presidency.
García Meza's government was
characterized by brutal repression of his opponents, recording arrests,
murders and forced disappearances directed by the Ministry of the
Interior led by Luis Arce Gómez. The lack of support from the population
and the international community, as well as evidence of links to drug
trafficking, led to the de facto government's end in 1981. In 1982, the
last military junta left power.
The 1980s were characterized by the return of
democracy and a deep economic crisis caused by the fall in international
tin prices, internal adjustments intended to pay the immense external
debt contracted under military governments, and hyperinflation. The
difficult economic situation contributed to the rise of drug trafficking
due to the illegal production of cocaine. The Government of Hernán Siles
Zuazo of the UDP (1982-1985) was characterized by weak economic
management unable to reverse hyperinflation and by a political crisis
whose solution was the early elections. In 1985, Víctor Paz Estenssoro
of the MNR was elected president for the fourth time. His government
(1985-1989) managed to stabilize the macroeconomy after promoting
certain neoliberal policies that partially replaced the statist model
initiated with the national revolution of 1952.
During the 1990s,
successive governments continued macroeconomic stabilization policies,
implementing a planned economy—according to the political position of
the leaders in transition—and the fight against drug trafficking. The
governments of Jaime Paz Zamora of the MIR (1989-1993), Gonzalo Sánchez
de Lozada of the MNR (1993-1997), Hugo Bánzer Suárez of ADN (1997-2001)
and Jorge Quiroga Ramírez (2001-2002) focused on diversifying the
Bolivian economy highly dependent on tin exports. For this purpose and,
taking into account the quasi-bankruptcy of the economy after the
hyperinflationary process of the 1980s, external financing was
substantially increased with international organizations such as the IMF
and the World Bank and the state hydrocarbons, railways and railway
companies were privatized. , telecommunications, electricity, air
transportation, among others. At the end of the 1990s, the export of gas
to Brazil was completed, as well as the construction of the export gas
pipeline to that country, and the economy began to diversify through
exports of natural gas, soybeans and zinc. Likewise, state management
was decentralized through the Popular Participation Law, which granted
autonomy and resources to the municipalities. Factors such as high rates
of corruption, insufficient social inclusion measures and economic
deterioration due to the contagion of the Asian crisis ended up
weakening the political system.
The first decade of the 21st
century was characterized by a strong economic crisis and political
instability. This allowed the emergence of social movements, mainly
peasants, indigenous people, miners, informal traders and coca growers.
The second term of Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada of the MNR (2002-2003)
ended prematurely after the so-called gas war. His vice president,
Carlos Mesa Gisbert (2003-2005), assumed the presidency without support
in Congress and with political pressure from social movements and the
emerging autonomist movement that emerged in Santa Cruz de la Sierra and
Tarija, so he resigned from the position. . Eduardo Rodríguez Veltzé
(2005-2006) assumed an interim term in which he called general elections
that gave Evo Morales Ayma of the Movement to Socialism as the winner.
Morales' first term began on January 22, 2006, which
was characterized by the implementation of left-wing nationalist and
indigenous policies: on May 1 of that year, he announced his intention
to nationalize Bolivian hydrocarbon assets after Due to the protests
that demanded this process, the electricity and communications companies
that had been privatized in the last decade were also nationalized. In
August 2006, a Constituent Assembly was installed to draft a new
constitution. After a deep political crisis that polarized the country
between supporters of the Government (located mainly in the west of the
country) and followers of the demand for departmental autonomy and
capital for Sucre (located mainly in eastern Bolivia), the Plurinational
Constitution was approved by 164 of the 255 constituents and was
subsequently modified by Congress and endorsed by the population in a
referendum.
At the end of 2009, Evo Morales was re-elected
president with more than two-thirds legislative majority. His second
term was characterized by solid growth in the Bolivian economy driven by
the so-called commodity super cycle, the deepening of statist policies
and subsidy programs, and the first ruptures with political allies as a
result of social conflicts such as the one related to the construction
of the highway through the TIPNIS national park. In 2014, Evo Morales
was again re-elected for a third term. This new presidential period was
characterized by the continuity of public investment policies and
incentives for domestic demand, the slowdown of the economy due to the
fall in export prices of raw materials and the drastic reduction in the
volumes of natural gas exported to Brazil and Argentina. Morales'
presidency was recognized for having reduced poverty levels, recorded
unprecedented economic growth and promoted the inclusion of the
indigenous population. On the contrary, it increased levels of
corruption, lowered the democratic level and had a deterioration in
independence judicial.
The results of the general elections of October 20,
2019 caused a political crisis, exacerbated after the complaint of fraud
by the opposition candidate Carlos Mesa and different civil
organizations such as the Pro Santa Cruz Civic Committee. To dispel the
complaints of fraud, the Morales government agreed with the OAS to carry
out a binding audit, which in its preliminary publication dated November
10, 2019, concluded that the electoral process had been at odds with
good practices and that the irregularities observed prevented give
certainty of the results. After the report was published and the
irregularities in the election were confirmed, Evo Morales announced the
renewal of all the members of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal and the
call for new national elections. That same day, Following the request
for resignation from the Bolivian Workers' Central and the Armed Forces,
Morales, Vice President Álvaro García Linera and Senate President
Adriana Salvatierra resigned from their positions and accepted the offer
of political asylum from the Mexican government after considering that
the Morales' life and physical integrity were at risk.
On
November 12, an ordinary session was convened chaired by the then second
vice president of the Senate Jeanine Áñez Chávez, due to the lack of
quorum, the corresponding action was taken, which was to resort to
succeeding the presidency of the Senate. senators with the powers of
succession granted by article 40 of the General Regulations of the
Chamber of Senators, which establishes the replacement of the president
and the first vice president of the senate; At the end of the session,
the following session was prepared where the abandonment of the
president and vice president of the State was ratified, as a result the
presidential succession was activated, and through the presidential
succession process protected by articles 169 and 170 of the
Constitution, in compliance with Constitutional Declaration 0003/01 of
July 31, 2001, Jeanine Añez assumed the presidency of the State.
Subsequently, her assumption was validated by the Plurinational
Constitutional Court, given the power vacuum caused by the resignations
of Morales, Linera and the presidents of both legislative chambers. On
November 24, the Plurinational Legislative Assembly approved Law No.
1266 on the Exceptional and Transitory Regime for the Conduct of General
Elections, which left the general elections of October 20, 2019 and
their results without legal effect, ordered the election of new members
of the Supreme Electoral Tribunal and called for new general elections
for 2020. In January 2020, this same Assembly approved Law No. 1270 on
the Extension of the Constitutional Mandate of Elected Authorities, in
which the constitutional mandate of President Áñez and the assembly
members who exercised functions according to the mandate of the 2014
general elections.
Among the repressive events that resulted from
this crisis, the Sacaba and Senkata massacres stand out, classified as
such by the IACHR. In August 2021, a report commissioned by the OAS and
conducted by independent human rights experts concluded that the Añez
government's path to power was accompanied by "irregularities" and
serious human rights abuses by security forces. . In 2020, Bolivia went
through a deep social and economic crisis as a result of the COVID-19
pandemic, as well as a political dispute between the Áñez government and
supporters of Morales, in which general elections were demanded, which
were postponed. on two occasions due to the health contingency. On
October 18, 2020, Luis Arce triumphed in the first round in the general
elections with 55.11% of the votes, against his rivals Carlos Mesa and
Luis Fernando Camacho.
On March 12, 2021, the Bolivian
Prosecutor's Office ordered the arrest of Jeanine Áñez and several of
her ministers accused of the crimes of sedition, terrorism and
conspiracy, due to their participation in the events of 2019, which the
institution described as " coup".
Bolivia is located in the central area of South
America, between the meridians 57° 26' and 69° 38' of western longitude
of the Greenwich meridian and the ninth parallels 38' and 22° 53' of
southern latitude, therefore it covers more of 13° geographical. Its
1,098,581 km² surface extends from the Central Andes, passing through
part of the Chaco to the Amazon. The geographical center of the country
is located in the Puerto Estrella area on the Rio Grande in the province
of Ñuflo de Chaves, located in the department of Santa Cruz,
The
geographical location of the country allows it to encompass a wide
variety of landforms and climates. Bolivia has one of the most important
forest areas in the world, with more than 36 million hectares of primary
forest, according to data from 2015. There is a wide biodiversity
(considered among the largest in the world), as well as different
ecoregions and ecological subunits such as the Altiplano, the Amazonian
plain, the dry valleys, the Yungas and the Chiquitano mountain ranges
that are framed in diverse altitudinal variations ranging from 6542 m
above sea level. n. m. of Nevado Sajama up to 70 m above sea level. n.
m. near the Paraguay River. Despite the variety of geographical
contrasts, Bolivia lacks ocean coasts (a condition acquired after the
Pacific War).
Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic
regions:
Andean region in the southwest
It covers 28% of the
national territory with an area of 307,603 km². This area is located at
more than 3000 m above sea level. n. m., located between the two great
Andean branches: the Western and Eastern or Royal mountain ranges, which
present some of the highest peaks in America such as Nevado Sajama with
6542 m. n. m. and the Illimani with 6462 m above sea level. n. m. Here
is Lake Titicaca, the highest navigable lake in the world located at
3810 m above sea level. n. m., with an area of 8100 km² and shared with
Peru. Also located in the high plateau is the Uyuni salt flat, which is
the largest salt deposit and lithium reservoir in the world.
Subandean region in the south-central
Intermediate region between the
high plateau and the eastern plains that covers 13% of the territory
(142,815 km²), and includes the valleys and the yungas (2,500 meters
above sea level). It is characterized by its agricultural activity and
its temperate to warm climate (15 to 25 °C). This region includes the
Bolivian valleys and Los Yungas.
Plains region in the northeast
It covers 59% of the national surface with an area of 648,163 km² and is
located north of the Eastern or Royal mountain range, which extends from
the foot of the Andes to the Paraguay River. It is a land of plains and
low plateaus, covered by extensive jungles rich in flora and fauna. The
region is characterized by being at an altitude of less than 400 m above
sea level. n. m., have extensive rivers and the greatest biodiversity in
the country. It registers an average annual temperature of 22 to 25 °C.
Bolivia has three basins that collect the waters that
flow into the slopes of the Atlantic (exorheic), the Altiplano
(endorrheic) and, to a lesser extent, the Pacific, as is the case of the
Silala River, whose waters are in dispute with Chile.
Amazon or
Northern Basin
724,000 km² / 66% of the territory. The rivers in this
basin generally have abundant and meandering flows, which is why
multiple lakes and lagoons tend to form, such as the Murillo lagoon,
located in the department of Pando. The main Bolivian tributary is the
Mamoré River with a length of 2000 km, which runs north to the
confluence with the Beni River, 1113 km long, the second most important
river in the country, with which it forms the Madera or Madeira River,
the main one. tributary of the Amazon River. From east to west it is
made up of other important rivers such as Madre de Dios, Orthon, Abuná,
Yata and Iténez or Guaporé. For their part, the most important lakes and
lagoons are Rogaguado and Rogagua. The average annual precipitation in
this part of the territory is 1814 mm/year.
Plata or Southern
Basin
229,500 km² / 21% of the territory. The tributaries are
generally less powerful than the Amazon ones. Composed mainly of the
Paraguay, Pilcomayo and Bermejo rivers. The most important lagoons are:
Uberaba and Mandioré located in the Bolivian Pantanal region. The
average annual precipitation in this part of the territory is 854
mm/year.
Lake or Central Basin
145,081 km² / 13% of the
territory. The Altiplano has a large number of rivers, lakes, lagoons
and springs that do not flow towards any ocean because they are enclosed
by the Andes mountain range that delimits the region. The most important
river is the Desaguadero, which, with its 436 km in length, is the
longest of the highland rivers. It rises in Lake Titicaca, the highest
in the world (3,810 m a.s.l.), and runs southeast into Lake Poopó ( 3686
m a.s.l.). Formed by lakes Titicaca and Poopó, and the Desaguadero river
and large salt flats such as Coipasa and Uyuni. Due to their tourist
attraction, the Verde, Blanca and Colorada lagoons located south of
Potosí are important. In this basin there are large salt flats such as
the Salar de Uyuni (12,000 km²), which is the largest salt desert and
lithium deposit in the world, or the Salar de Coipasa (2,218 km²). The
average annual precipitation in this part of the territory is 421
mm/year.
Bolivia's climate varies greatly between ecoregions,
from tropical conditions in the eastern plains to a polar climate in the
western Andes. Summers are hot, humid in the east and dry in the west
with rains that modify the temperature, humidity, wind, atmospheric
pressure, and evaporation, giving rise to different climates. When the
climatological and erratically cyclical phenomenon called El Niño
occurs, it generates major alterations in the climate. Winters in the
West are quite cold and feature snow near the mountains, while the
lowlands tend to have windy days. Autumn is dry in non-tropical regions.
Climatic variations by region occur as follows:
Plains
Tropical humid climate with average temperature of 30 °C. The winds
coming from the Amazon rainforest cause significant rainfall. Starting
in May, dry winds produce minimal precipitation so the days are clear.
In winter, strong winds from the south, called surazos, occur, which can
bring cool temperatures for several days.
Plateau
Arid-polar
climate swept by strong, cold winds. The average temperature is between
15 to 20 °C. At night temperatures drop drastically and are just above
0°C, while at midday the weather is dry and the intensity of solar
radiation is greater. Frost occurs almost every month and snow is
frequent.
Valleys and Yungas
The weather is warm. Moist
northeasterly winds are pushed into the mountains, making this area
humid and rainy. Temperatures fall with increasing altitude, however
snowfall is possible at elevations ranging from 2550 m above sea level.
Chaco
Semitropical, semiarid climate. It presents rain and
humidity during January and the other months are dry with hot days and
cool nights. The maximum temperature recorded in Bolivia was 47 °C and
occurred in this area. Surazos also affect this region.
Bolivia is considered a megadiverse country, as it is
among the countries in the world with the greatest variety of living
beings, ecosystems and genetic differences within each species that
allow the combination of multiple forms of life.
Its altitudinal
gradient, which ranges between 90 and 6542 m above sea level. n. m.,
allows us to have this wide biological diversity. Its territory includes
4 types of biomes, 32 ecological regions and 199 ecosystems. The
ecosystems of the Amazon, the Yungas, the Chiquitanía, the Chaco and the
inter-Andean forests stand out. In this megadiverse geographical space,
different natural reserves coexist, such as the national parks: Noel
Kempff Mercado, Madidi, Tunari, Eduardo Abaroa, Kaa- Iya, among others.
The biodiversity of species is divided into:
Floors
By
having more than 20,000 species with seeds, of which it is estimated
that there are more than 1,200 species of ferns, more than 1,500 species
of liverworts or mosses, and at least eight hundred species of fungi. In
addition, more than 3,000 species of medicinal plants are known, which
is why Bolivia is considered the place of origin of species such as
locotos, chili peppers, peppers, peanuts, beans or Phaseolus vulgaris,
cassava or cassava and various varieties of palm trees. On the other
hand, more than 4,000 varieties of potatoes are produced on its lands in
a wide range of colors, shapes and sizes.
Vertebrates
Among
the ten most diverse countries with more than 2,900 species, distributed
in: 398 mammals, more than 1,400 birds (70% of known birds in the world,
6th country with the highest number of species), 204 amphibians, 277
reptiles and 635 freshwater fish, since the country does not have access
to the sea. In addition, more than 3,000 species of butterflies have
been identified, making the country fourth in the world. There are also
more than 50 species of domestic animals.
Although Bolivian
territory only houses around 3.5% of the world's forests, the country's
biological diversity represents between 30 and 40% of the world's total.
A high percentage of the flora and fauna species are endemic since they
only live in the delimited area. The highest concentration of endemic
plants are found in the Andes. More specifically in the yungas and the
dry inter-Andean valleys.
The census carried out by the National Institute of
Statistics in 2012 recorded a population of 10,290,003 inhabitants
(approximately) and a masculinity index of 99.67%. The population for
2022 is 12,054,379 people.
In the last fifty years the Bolivian
population has tripled, reaching an annual growth rate of 2.25%. The
increase in the population in the intercensal periods 1950-1976 and
1976-1992. The annual growth rate for the first intercensal period was
2.05% between 1976-1992, while the growth at the last census in 2001
reached 2.74% annually.
69% of Bolivians live in urban areas and
the remaining 31%; in rural areas. Most of the country's population is
concentrated in the departments of Santa Cruz, Cochabamba, and La Paz,
which account for more than 70% of the Bolivian population. In the
highland region, the departments of La Paz and Potosí concentrate the
largest proportion of the population. In the valleys, the departments of
Cochabamba and Chuquisaca have the highest proportion of population and
in the plains this occurs with the departments of Santa Cruz and Beni.
The population density is 8.49 inhabitants per square km, with
variations between 0.8 in the department of Pando and 26.2 in the
department of Cochabamba. With population growth, density has also
increased in each intercensus period.
The greatest concentration
of population occurs in the so-called "central axis" of the country.
Bolivia is characterized by having a young population. According to the
2001 census, 54% of the inhabitants are between 15 and 59 years old, 39%
are under 15 years old and a third of them are under 5 years old. Almost
60% of the population is under 25 years of age, adolescents (10-20
years) represent 23% and women of childbearing age (15-49 years) are
almost half of all women in the country.
According to the
International Organization for Migration, there are approximately 1.6
million Bolivians who have emigrated abroad in search of better living
conditions. The traditional countries of migration have been Argentina
and the United States. However, in the 1990s most of the Bolivian
migration was to Spain, where an estimated 230,000 Bolivians reside.
The ethnic composition of Bolivia includes a great
diversity of cultures. The majority of indigenous people have
assimilated the mestizo culture, diversifying and expanding their
ancestral roots. Consequently, in Bolivia there is a mix of cultures,
uniting Hispanic aspects with Amerindian aspects.
Mestizos
Mix
of Amerindians and Europeans spread throughout the country. The vast
majority of the Bolivian population assumes its mestizo identity but at
the same time, self-identifies with one of the indigenous-original
peoples, they are part of 59% of the Bolivian population according to
the 2012 census.
Indigenous-Original
Descendants of
pre-Hispanic Andean cultures such as the Aymaras and Quechuas (Inca
Empire). These are concentrated in the western departments of La Paz,
Potosí, Oruro, Chuquisaca and Cochabamba. There is also a significant
population of eastern ethnic groups such as the Guaraníes and the
Mojeños who are found in the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni, Pando and
Tarija. On the other hand, as a result of internal migratory flows, the
eastern region of the country has witnessed a significant increase in
Quechuas and Aymaras in rural areas, and in indigenous Amazonians and
Chacoians in urban areas, they make up 37% of the Bolivian population.
(25% Quechua, 11% Aymara and 1% others) according to the 2012 census.
Whites
Most are descendants of Creoles and second-generation
European and Arab migrants from Germany, Croatia, Spain, Italy, Lebanon
and Turkey. They are mainly concentrated in large cities such as Santa
Cruz de la Sierra, La Paz, Tarija, and Cochabamba. In the department of
Santa Cruz, the members of Mennonite colonies (55,000) who are dedicated
to agriculture stand out; according to the 2012 census, they make up 3%
of the Bolivian population.
Afrobolivians
They are descendants
of Africans brought to the country as slaves during the colony.
According to the 2012 census, they are part of 1% of the Bolivian
population.
Asians
Mainly Japanese (14,000), Chinese (4,600),
Koreans.
Others
European citizens from Germany, France, Italy
and Portugal. There are also a small number of immigrants from other
American countries, such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba,
Ecuador, United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico, Venezuela, among others.
There is a significant Peruvian population primarily in La Paz and El
Alto.
The indigenous-origin peoples of Bolivia are divided
into two branches: The Ethnic groups of the Andes settled mostly in the
highland regions and valleys; and the Ethnic groups of the Eastern
Plains located in the warm regions northeast of the central mountain
range and the regions of the southeast (Gran Chaco).
Ethnic
groups of the Andes
Aymaras
They fundamentally occupy the high
plateau of the departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potosí and some
headlands of the tropical plains.
Quechuas
They are mainly
developed in the valleys of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. They also occupy
the mountainous areas of Potosí and Oruro. There are Quechua enclaves in
the provinces of Inquisivi, Camacho and Muñecas in the department of La
Paz. The Tarabucos (Yamparaes province of Chuquisaca department), the
Ucumaris (Chayantas and Bustillos provinces of Potosí department), the
Calchas, Chaquies, Yralipes, Tirinas, etc. belong to the Quechua nation.
Ethnic groups of the Eastern Plains
Guaraníes
Formed by:
Guarayas, Pausernas, Sirionos, Chiriguanos, Matacos, Chulipis, Taipetes,
Tobas and Yuquis.
Heels
Formed by: Lecos, Chimanes, Araonas and
Maropas.
Panos
Formed by: Chacobos, Caripunas, Sinabos, Capuibos
and the Guacanaguas.
Aruacos
Formed by: Apolists, Baures, Moxos,
Chanes, Movimas, Cayabayas, Carabecas, Paiconecas or Paucanacas.
Chapacuras
Formed by: Iténez or More, Chapacuras, Sansinonians,
Canichanas, Itonamas, Yuracares, Guatoses and Littles.
Botocudos
Formed by: Bororos and Otuquis.
Bolivia has a rich linguistic variety product of its
multicultural condition.
The Political Constitution of the State
recognizes 37 official languages, including in addition to Spanish all
the languages of the indigenous peoples of Bolivia.
They are
official languages of the State Spanish and all the languages of the
indigenous peasant peoples, which are Aymara, Araona, Baure, Besiro,
Canichana, Cavineño, Cayubaba, Chacobo, Chiman, Ese Ejja, Guarani,
Guarasuawe, Guarayu, Itonama, Leco , Machajuyai-Kallawaya, Machinery,
Maropa, Mojeño-Trinitarium, Mojeño-Ignatian, More, Mosetten, Movima,
Pacawara, Puquina, Quechua, Siriono, Tacana, Tapiete, Toromona,
Uruchipaya, Weenhayek, Yaminawa, Yuki, Yuracaré and Zamuco.
Political
Constitution of the State (Article 5, Paragraph I)
Spanish is the
most spoken official language throughout the country according to the
2001 census, by 88.4% of the inhabitants as a mother tongue or second
language in some indigenous populations. The legal and official
documents of the State, including the Political Constitution, the main
private and public institutions, the media and commercial activities use
this language.
Among the main indigenous languages are:
Quechua (25 % of the population, 2012 census): was the official language
of the Inca Empire. It is spoken mainly in the departments of
Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Oruro and Potosí.
Aimara (11 % of the
population, 2012 census): language of pre-Inca origin. Spoken mainly in
the department of La Paz, partly in Oruro and Potosí.
Guaraní (1 % of
the population, 2012 census): is spoken in the Gran Chaco region.
Others (4 % of the population, 2012 census): the Moxeño in the
department of Beni stands out.
Within foreign languages, English and
Portuguese or their mixture with Spanish called Portuñol are most
frequent.
Bolivia is a secular state that guarantees freedom of
religion. The 2009 Constitution establishes that:
The State respects
and guarantees freedom of religion and spiritual beliefs, in accordance
with its worldviews. The State is independent of religion.
Political
Constitution of the State (Article 4)
According to the 2001
census carried out by the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia,
78% of the population calls themselves Catholic. Protestant
denominations represent almost 19% of the population. The number of
Catholics is higher in urban areas than in rural areas, while Protestant
membership reaches its highest level, approximately 20%, in the
countryside. Approximately 2.5% of the population reported no religious
affiliation and less than 0.2% reported affiliation with other religious
denominations, including Islam, Jehovah's Witnesses, the Bahai Faith,
Judaism, Buddhism, and Shintoism. There are 280 non-Catholic religious
organizations and more than 200 Catholic groups registered by the
government.
Mennonites, Lutherans, Jehovah's Witnesses,
Adventists, Baptists, Pentecostals, Methodists, Mormons, etc., maintain
an active presence of foreign missionaries.
Catholicism
The
Bolivian Catholic Church has four Archdioceses, seven Dioceses, two
Prelatures and five Apostolic Vicariates. Among the most important
religious events in recent decades we can mention the visit of John Paul
II in 1988, the appointment of Monsignor Julio Terrazas, archbishop of
Santa Cruz, to cardinal, and the visit of Pope Francis in 2015.
Catholicism has traditionally been the religion with the largest number
of followers in the country. In the indigenous peoples of the West it
remains in force through religious syncretism despite the fact that in
recent decades, evangelical Christian churches have gained ground over
Catholicism. For their part, the indigenous peoples of the East such as
the Chiquitos and the Moxos maintain strong ties with Catholicism, a
product of the cultural mixing inherited from the Jesuit missions of the
17th century.
Indigenous beliefs and cults
A good part of the
indigenous population practices various religions with syncretic or
complementary elements with Catholicism from their worldviews and
ancestral traditions. The cult of Pachamama98 or Mother Earth stands
out, which is combined with the veneration of the Virgin of Copacabana,
the Virgin of Urkupiña, the Virgin of Socavón or the Lord Jesus of the
Great Power. There are also Aymara regions south of Lake Titicaca that
maintain a strong devotion to Tata Apóstol Santiago99 that is combined
with ancestral traditions. Other indigenous deities are: Ekeko, Aymara
god of abundance whose festival is widely celebrated on January 24 at
the Alasitas Fair and Tupá, prestigious god of the Guaraní people.
Recently, some indigenous leaders have sought to banish all forms of
Christianity from their communities to reclaim their ancestral beliefs.
In 2009, by Supreme Decree, it was decided to recognize the celebration
of the Aymara New Year or Wilka Kuti (return of the sun), a festival
that celebrates the beginning of a new solar cycle with the arrival of
the winter solstice. This celebration takes place in the ruins of the
Tiwanaku complex.
Other religions
Mormons
They are present
throughout the country. Mormon Church sources estimate that the number
of its adherents exceeds 140,000 people.
Jehovah's Witnesses
They are present throughout the country. There are more than 22,000
active ministers and more than 90,000 people attend their religious
services.
Jewish community
The Jewish population in Bolivia is
approximately 500 people. The majority of Bolivian Jews are found in the
city of La Paz, followed by Cochabamba and Santa Cruz de la Sierra. The
community has four synagogues established in La Paz.
Islamic
community
They have cultural centers that also serve as mosques in La
Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba. These cultural centers
welcome both Shia and Sunni Muslims.
Asian community
Korean
immigrants establish their church in La Paz. Most Korean, Chinese and
Japanese immigrants have settled in Santa Cruz de la Sierra.
Other religious communities
Buddhists and Shintoists, as well as an
important Bahai community throughout the country.
Agnostics and
atheists
It is estimated that around 3% of the population falls into
this category.
The culture of Bolivia is the product of a great
diversity of expressions, as a result of the variety of geographical
settings that its current territory includes, as well as the ethnic
diversity that characterizes it. It is very diverse in languages,
covering the Andes mountain range, the Gran Chaco, the inter-Andean
valleys, the plains and the Amazon.
In Bolivia there are around
forty ethnic groups, which in many cases preserve their traditions,
cultures and languages. Bolivian culture has been defined by its
interesting geographical layout, the predominant indigenous population
and the mixing of its ancestral traditions with European cultural
elements that were imported during the period of Spanish colonialism.
The amalgamation of all these elements has resulted in a rich and varied
culture.
The school population at the initial level is
approximately 200,000 students in 2005. In the primary sector, there is
a school population of approximately 1,600,000 for the same period while
young people enrolled in secondary school reach 400,000 students. .
The coverage of the Educational System reaches about 85% of the
population and the majority is found in public establishments with
2,100,000 inhabitants, demonstrating that the demand for public services
in the educational field is very great.
The permanence of the
schooling population (6 to 19) shows that 92% of the population who
declared they have a basic level continue studying and represent 65% of
those attending. When analyzing the reasons for non-attendance of the
school-going population by sex, it is concluded that women are the ones
who attend the school system the least in relation to the male
population. The main reason for absence of both boys and girls is the
need to work. In rural areas, the lack of relevant educational offer is
a reason for non-attendance. For example, the shortage of schools with
more than third grade of primary school. The absence of secondary school
in rural areas is particularly notable and is therefore the reason why
those who cannot migrate to urban areas to attend secondary school
abandon the school system.
96% of the population is literate.
Being one of the Latin American countries with the least illiterate.102
The Bolivian government's literacy programs in recent years have
improved this indicator.
On December 12, 2009, the Government of
Evo Morales announced the completion of a literacy program through which
since 2006 820,000 people have been literate throughout the country,
mostly peasants and indigenous people.
The educational
organization is made up of levels and modalities according to the bases,
purposes and objectives of education. This organization is based on the
biopsychosocial development of the students and the characteristics of
each region of the country.
The levels of the Educational System
are gradual, according to the educational process itself, with its own
objectives and depending on the different stages of development of the
students. There is still a pending task, which is to change the
educational structure in terms of a new master plan that directs this
task. There is a debate about the so-called Avelino Siñani law, which
would greatly reform the national educational system and which faces
various opposition groups, including the teachers themselves who
complain that they were not consulted in the development of this
educational standard.
Between 2007 and 2017, infant mortality has
decreased by 50% according to the World Health Organization.
The following list shows the complete Web Ranking of Universities, Webometrics 2021 of the 56 Universities that provide Higher Education in Bolivian territory. Prepared by the Spanish Higher Council for Scientific Research (CSIC), this ranking takes into consideration 3 axes for the scoring of the different Universities. Academic excellence that counts for 40% of the score (percentage of most cited academic and scientific articles in 27 disciplines in the scimago lab database) 50% score for the visibility of the impact of the content and 10% score for the top academic-scientific researchers.
According to the most recent data from the World Bank,
in 2009, Bolivia invested 0.16% of its GDP in research and development;
the lowest for Latin America. In 2010, it had 164 researchers per
million inhabitants. According to the World Innovation Index, run by the
World Intellectual Property Organization, in 2023, Bolivia was ranked
97th in innovation among 132 countries in the world.
The
country has a space program run by the Bolivian Space Agency (ABE),
created in 2010. It is in charge of managing the Túpac Katari satellite
and the two earth stations inaugurated in 2013: Amachuma and La Guardia.
The cultural heritage of Bolivia is made up of all
intangible and tangible cultural assets, both movable and immovable,
found or produced in the Bolivian territory, as an individual or
collective product, which as a testimony of material or immaterial human
creation artistic, scientific, archaeological, urban, documentary or
technical that are susceptible to a declaration of this nature.
The Bolivian State recognizes the pluricultural, multiethnic and
plurilingual conformation of the Nation, and enshrines the principles of
interculturality, interinstitutionality and social participation as
pillars of the integrated conservation of the cultural heritage of
Bolivia.
The State has as one of its highest functions the
equitable protection of the tangible and intangible heritage of all the
cultures that develop in the national territory and that make up the
cultural heritage of Bolivia, and promotes the recognition, rescue,
recreation, preservation, Integrated conservation, access and
dissemination of cultural heritage as a right of all inhabitants of the
country.
Bolivia contains an enormous historical and cultural
wealth, which is expressed in a universally praised tourist importance
for lovers of nature, anthropology, archeology and paleontology.
Bolivian painting has its beginnings in the rock art
of the native peoples. Currently, more than a thousand sites with rock
art are registered corresponding to different periods such as:
Paleoindian, pre-Inca, Inca, colonial and Republican. The main
archaeological parks of Bolivian rock art are: Calacala in Oruro,
Samaipata (site declared Cultural Heritage of Humanity) in Santa Cruz,
Copacabana in La Paz and Incamachay (site declared a National Monument)
in Chuquisaca.
During the colonial period, the painters of the
current Bolivian territory were influenced by the mannerism of Bernardo
Bitti and the stylized art lacking in realism of the Inca and
Tiahuanacota traditions, with painters such as Diego Cusihuamán standing
out.
In the 17th century, the baroque generated the School of
Potosí and the School of Collao. In Potosí there was a strong influence
of Spanish mannerism, highlighting Melchor Pérez de Holguín, the most
important baroque painter of the Viceroyalty of Peru. For his part , in
Collao the Spanish-Flemish influence manages to inspire indigenous and
mestizo artists, highlighting the anonymous Maestro de Calamarca with
his works known as Ángeles y Arcángeles de Calamarca.
Independence incorporated painting influenced by neoclassicism and
academicism with painters such as Melchor María Mercado and Zenón
Iturralde. In the 20th century, art marked by revolutionary nationalism
and indigenism appears. The magical realism of Arturo Borda, the
indigenous portraits by Cecilio Guzmán de Rojas and the revolutionary
art of Miguel Alandia Pantoja, Walter Solón Romero and Alfredo La Placa
are the main references. For its part, contemporary art from the end of
the century introduces themes such as urban man and criticism
social.130 The most prominent contemporary painters are: Gil Imaná,
Lorgio Vaca, Edgar Arandia, Gastón Ugalde, Tito Kuramoto, Carmen
Villazón, Sol Mateo, Luis Zilveti and Roberto Mamani Mamani.
Bolivian sculpture dates back to the Tiwanaku period
with anthropomorphic steles such as the Bennett Monolith or the figures
sculpted in the Puerta del Sol. Later, in the colonial period, Tito
Yupanqui, author of the Virgin of Copacabana, stands out, who had a
technique that linked the indigenous tradition with the Spanish
sculpture of the time. Subsequently, sculptures carved in churches of
Sucre and Potosí stand out that were influenced by the Sevillian School
and the Cuzqueña School.
In the republican period, sculpture
received a boost with the creation of the School of Fine Arts of La Paz
and thus at the beginning of the 20th century, Emiliano Luján, Hugo
Almaráz, Víctor Zapana and mainly, Marina Núñez del Prado stood out, who
She is considered one of the greatest sculptors in Latin America. Núñez
del Prado's work is distinguished by the use of stylized curves (worked
in onyx, black granite, alabaster, etc.), which symbolize women, a theme
that occupies a central place in his art. Later, after the 1960s, new
talents appear such as Ted Carrasco, Carlos Rodríguez and Marcelo
Callaú who are mostly inspired by Bolivian society and Andean myths.
Bolivian architecture rescues the buildings of
Tiwanaku built with large blocks of carved stone with excellent assembly
and the Inca constructions such as the palaces of Isla del Sol and the
military forts of Samaipata and Incallajta, for example.
In the
colonial era, the baroque mestizo religious buildings of the 18th
century stand out, combining European and native mythological elements.
The Church of San Lorenzo de Potosí, the Basilica of San Francisco de La
Paz and the churches of the Jesuit Missions are representative works of
this period.
After independence, new styles emerged such as the
neoclassical with the Potosí Cathedral by Manuel Sanahuja; and French
academicism with the Government Palace of José Núñez del Prado and the
Cathedral of Santa Cruz de la Sierra by Felipe Bertrés. At the end of
the 19th century, eclecticism was imposed, reflected in works such as
the Glorieta Palace by Antonio Camponovo. which combines 14
architectural styles.
In the 20th century, styles such as
Neotiahuanaco emerged with the National Museum of Archeology by Arturo
Posnasky; and the official academism with the Legislative Palace of
Camponovo. In the use of both styles, Emilio Villanueva stands out, who
is considered the most important Bolivian architect of the century for
works such as the Mayor's Office of La Paz (1925), the Central Bank of
Bolivia (1926) and the complex of the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés
(1941-1948).
In Bolivia there is an infinite variety of folk dances
that show the diversity of cultures. Living examples of this are the
Oruro Carnival, "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of
Humanity" (UNESCO), the Festival of the Great Power and the university
and religious folk entries in the main cities of the country.
Dances by department:
Beni: Machete players, Bajons, Achu, Mooperas,
Dance of the Sun and Moon, Chovena.
Chuquisaca: Play, Chuquisaca Cave
(Waltz), Dance, Huayño, Doctorcitos.
Cochabamba: Cochabamba Cave,
Cochabamba Carnival.
La Paz: Corporals, Kullawada, Flaming, Cave of
La Paz, Waka Waka, Saya, Incas, Carnival of La Paz.
Gold: Bolivian
Devil, Morenada, Kallawaya, Suris Sicuris, Tobas, Antahuara, Awatiris,
Suri Sicuri, Wititis, Intillajta, Sampoñaris and Tarqueada
Pando:
Chovena,
Potosí: Tinku, Potolos and the Potosí Basin.
Holy Cross:
Holy Cross Carnival, Chovena, Sarao.
Tarija and the Chaco Region:
Chapaca Wheel, Tonada, Pim Pim, Chapaca Cave and the Chaqueña Cave,
Chacarera, Cat, Escondido, Triumph, Michizos, Chamamé, Chunchos, Zamba,
Atico and Tero Tero.
Tupiza-South Chichas: Tone and the Cueca.
The National Folk Ballet founded in 1975, the National Symphony
Orchestra founded in 1945 and the Choir and Orchestra of Urubichá, which
collects the Baroque and Renaissance musical heritage of Bolivian
Chiquitanía, also stand out.
The music is played during festivals
and dances, contains strong Spanish influences. The most common musical
instruments are:
Western Zone: zampoña, siku, quena, tarka, pinkillo,
charango, anata.
Valleys area (Tarija): reed, erque, quenilla, box,
camacheña, guitar, violin, drum.
Eastern Zone: guitar, pinguyo
(taucara flute), drum and instruments introduced by the Jesuit missions
such as bombo, violin and harp.
The 1952 Revolution encouraged
and supported the development of a national culture, mainly the Aymara
and Quechua part through the middle layers of society. A Department of
folklore was established within the Ministry of Education.
The
awakening of the culture was also reflected in the music. In 1965 Edgar
"Yayo" Jofré formed a quartet called Los Jairas in La Paz. With the rise
of popular music Jofré, together with Alfredo Domínguez, Ernesto Cavour,
Julio Godoy and Gilbert Favre modified the forms of traditional music,
fusing it with urban and European rhythms. Subsequently groups like
Wara, Khanata, Paja Brava, Savia Andina and especially Los Kjarkas would
appear who would refine this fusion and take Bolivian music to the main
international stages.
Among the most prominent singers are Raul
Shaw Moreno, Gladys Moreno, Alfredo Dominguez, Orlando Rojas, Nilo
Soruco, Willy Alfaro, Luzmila Carpio, Ulysses Hermosa, Yalo Cuellar,
Luis Rico, Pepe Murillo, Emma Junaro, Enriqueta Ulloa, Juan Enrique
Jurado and Aldo Rock.
In musical composition they unveil the late
Alfredo Domínguez with all his works. Simeon Roncal with his <<March to
the Chaco>>, Teófilo Vargas with his folkloric work <<National Airs of
Bolivia>>, Eduardo Cava with his <<18 Andean Airs>>, Gilberto Rojas with
his taquirari <<Viva Santa Cruz >>, Willy Alfaro Carballo with the
"Festival of Kings or Tone for Remedies", Apolinar Camacho with the
composition <<Viva Mi Patria Bolivia>> considered the second anthem of
the country, the composer of classical guitar Piraí Vaca.
The
most representative national music groups are: Los Kjarkas, Los
Andariegos, Palala Ahicito, Los Canarios del Chaco, El Negro Palma, Juan
Enrique Jurado, Savia Andena, Andean Group, Female Group Bolivia, Raymi
Bolivia, Jacha Mallku, Tupay, Kala Brand, Andean Passion, Projection,
Amaru, Bonanza, Heaven, Oriental Trio, Feeling Duo, Tola Claudio,
Huáscar Apparition.
In genres such as Rock-Pop and Rock stand out
internationally groups such as: Loukass, Octavia, Blue Blue and
Shortcut.
In the colonial period, writers such as Antonio de la
Calancha and Vicente Pazos Kanki stood out, while at the beginning of
republican life Juan Wallparrimachi stood out. For much of the 19th
century, the historian Gabriel René Moreno is the main reference of
Bolivian literature.
The first Bolivian literary works appear at
the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century with
authors such as Nataniel Aguirre, Ricardo Jaimes Freyre, Alcides
Arguedas, Franz Tamayo, Gregorio Reynolds, Jaime Mendoza and Armando
Chirveches. During the first half of the 20th century, Adela Zamudio,
Demetrio Canelas, Abel Alarcón, Tristán Marof, Enrique Finot and Javier
del Granado stand out mainly.
During the second half of the 20th
century, nationalist literary works were accentuated, with writers such
as Augusto Céspedes, Carlos Medinaceli, Antonio Díaz Villamil, Óscar
Alfaro, Raúl Botelho Gosálvez, Joaquín Aguirre Lavayén, among others. On
the other hand, writers who mark a new way of creating universal
literature in Bolivia are established, such as Jaime Sáenz, Óscar
Cerruto, Julio de la Vega, Jesús Urzagasti, Jesús Lara, Raúl Otero
Reiche, Adolfo Costa Du Rels, Renato Prada Oropeza, Eduardo Mitre, Pedro
Shimose, Néstor Taboada Terán, Gastón Suárez, among others.
Within the contemporary literary panorama, writers of different genres
stand out, many of them promoted by the National Novel Prize created in
1998. Gonzalo Lema, Edmundo Paz Soldán, Wolfango Montes, Cé Mendizábal,
Ramón Rocha Monroy, Homero Carvalho, Juan de Recacoechea, Víctor
Montoya, Adolfo Cárdenas, Giovanna Rivero, Wilmer Urrelo, Rodrigo
Hasbún, Víctor Hugo Viscarra, Claudio Ferrufino-Coqueugniot, Sebastián
Antezana, Ronnie Piérola Gómez, Blanca Wiethüchter are the main
references.
Around 35,000 archaeological sites can be found in
Bolivia. Many of the most preserved, for climatic reasons (deserts and
very dry areas) or due to the type of materials used (stone), are found
in the Andes, belonging to pre-Inca and Inca cultures. However, in the
tropical eastern sector of the country (2/3 of Bolivia's territory)
there are countless archaeological sites, with cave paintings, remains
of ceramics and even the vestiges of enormous pre-Hispanic hydraulic
works in the plains of Moxos and Baures.
The most important
archaeological zone in the country is the Tiwanaku Ruins, where the
Puerta del Sol is located, with its monuments of astronomical
observation and its cultivation techniques, which denote an advanced
degree of knowledge, not only of its environment. but of the laws of the
universe.
The Bolivian tropical East was the center of an
important pre-Columbian civilization, known as the Hydraulic Culture of
the Lomas. Since more or less 4000 years BC. C. (probably before: the
current data is based on dated ceramics) until the 13th century AD, the
region was the settlement of important human groups organized in
pre-state societies (in some cases very centralized), defined as
chiefdoms, local potentates. The system was based, environmentally and
economically, on the use of specific environmental characteristics (use
of aquatic plants as fertilizers and gigantic fishing systems) and on
the construction of large hydraulic works that allowed connection
between the various human nuclei in any season, crops also in the flood
season (hence the creation of elevated crop fields visible even today
from the air), embankments, dikes, canals and lagoons with road and
fishing functions.
When the Spanish arrived, the region had
already been in complete decline for nearly three centuries. In any
case, it remains one of the centers of origin and propagation of many
agricultural products with worldwide distribution: tobacco, peanuts,
cotton, cassava (Manihot esculenta), sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas).
Another important area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the
ceremonial center of Samaipata, also known as the Fort, the largest
terrestrial petroglyph built by Amazonian populations in ancient times.
The center was apparently occupied a few years before the Spanish
conquest by an Inca advance party that has left some of the typical Inca
motifs superimposed on the decorations of the Amazonian cultures. In the
surrounding area, more than 50 buildings have been discovered in an area
of 30 to 40 hectares.
Pre-Hispanic roads, cave paintings and the
well-known dinosaur footprints of Toro Toro are also found in the
country. Many of these archaeological sites – some dating back thousands
of years – have been declared World Heritage Sites by UNESCO.
Bolivian cuisine has numerous elements in common with
the gastronomy of neighboring countries, especially the consumption of
products considered typically regional. However, due to the variety of
climatic zones, Bolivian cuisine is very rich and differentiated
according to the culinary tradition of each region.
Bolivian
gastronomy has deep ethnic, European and Arab roots, and transformed by
miscegenation and the different historical moments that the country has
experienced, Bolivian gastronomy has added dishes, different mixtures
and preparations to a long list that covers all varieties of Bolivian
food.
In the dishes of the Bolivian highland area, starches and
carbohydrates abound, such as potatoes, an ingredient that usually
accompanies most dishes, especially dehydrated potatoes called chuño or
ch'uñu, chairo also stands out. , a lamb or sheep broth with potatoes,
chuño and vegetables. The La Paz dish has the particularity of not
having meat, it consists of a portion of cooked beans, a slice of fried
Creole cheese, a potato with a cooked peel, a cooked corn and abundant
sauce called llajwa.
Oruro, the capital of Bolivian folklore, has
a diversity of dishes such as: thimpu, meat consommé, followed by a main
course with meat (from the consommé) accompanied with rice, potatoes,
chuño, sometimes vegetables and a chili sauce and onion; jolke, a beef
kidney and boiled potato broth; a typical dish called intendente, an
abundant dish with various meats and lamb offal, accompanied with rice
and other carbohydrates; roasted face, a particular dish that cooks the
seasoned lamb head (sometimes cow) in the oven, without removing the fur
or skin of the animal, although the latter are not eaten; charquekan
orureño or fried dehydrated llama meat accompanied with mote, potato,
hard-boiled egg, cheese and llajwa.
A wide variety of fruits and
vegetables, grains and legumes are produced in the Bolivian sub-Andean
valleys. However, the most important product is corn, of which there are
many varieties, such as kulli or purple corn, ch'uspillu or willkaparu
(Tupiza, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca). Among the typical dishes of the
central valleys (Cochabamba, Chuquisaca), there are a variety of spicy
chili dishes such as sajta and spicy assortment. Pacumutu, beef fillets;
the salteña, the sillp'anchu, marinated meat with egg on top; the male
pique, minced meat with onions, the false rabbit, the tranca-pecho, the
anticuchos and the meat empanadas. Among the typical dishes of the
provinces in the department of Cochabamba is uchuku (chili soup
accompanied by potato filling with goat cheese, rice, egg, chuño,
chicken and duck meat, potato, beef tongue and fried "chilijchi"); dish
from the Aiquile region.
The traditional dish of the valleys and
the upper area of Tarija is asado (grilled meat), pork a la cruz, saice,
which is prepared with ground beef, potatoes, peas and is served with
rice. and in cases also with noodles, it is also served with a creole or
salad of tomato, lettuce and onion, other dishes that are consumed in
quantity are humita or huminta, tamale and empanadas.
The
traditional gastronomy of the city of Tupiza is varied and has the
following dishes: k'asa uchu, tamales, humintas, patatasq'a, palqui
stew, spicy goat, roast goat, goat or lamb on the cross, tortillas Made
with goat's milk, corn flour and salt, there is also goat cheese.
Grilled qaras is a typical dish from the Valles region, in an area
close to the departments of Santa Cruz and Chuquisaca, more specifically
in the province of Vallegrande, located in the department of Santa Cruz.
It contains mote, potatoes, pork chops, and the pork cuerrillo that is
cooked over live embers, it is a delicious dish especially the
preparation of the meat and the cuerrillo. The asadito colorado is
another typical dish from the province of Vallegrande; It consists of
the following: pork, prepared with seasonings, especially a red dye for
which it takes its name, is cooked in the same lard that drains from the
meat. It is accompanied with cooked potatoes, chili, sometimes bread.
In the lowlands or plains, cassava replaces potatoes and the use of
vegetables is more frequent. Sugar, bananas, almonds, tropical fruits,
soybeans and beef are produced. The main dish of the plains is locro, a
rice soup with charque (ch'arki) or chicken.
The dishes are made
based on corn, such as white corn locro, tamales made with a corn base
stuffed with sautéed in butter and onion, hot pepper, paprika and minced
meat, and huminta en chala, made with corn. (sweet corn) grated, sugar
and cinnamon, with a sauce of tomatoes, bell peppers and paprika, also
wrapped in chalas (corn leaves) and boiled like tamales.
The
chipilo, traditional from the Beni department. It is green banana cut
into very thin slices and fried in oil. Its flavor resembles a salty
cracker.
In eastern food, tapada soup stands out, which is a
typical dish from the plains in the northeast of the country that
basically consists of three layers: one of rice and another of a meat
preparation with egg and banana with some olives more or less like a
noodle cake.
In this extremely humid part of the country,
pastries are preserved in a very ingenious way: They are left in the
oven over low heat until they dehydrate and harden. To consume it, it is
soaked in coffee or the hot drink with which it is accompanied.
Among the sugary drinks, corn api and somó, and peach mocochinchi stand
out. In relation to alcoholic beverages, singani stands out as the main
national liquor, which is a drink from the grape brandy family that is
produced in the south of the country. Corn chicha is also one of the
traditional alcoholic drinks.
In Tarija and the Bolivian Chaco,
the consumption of yerba mate is deeply rooted, while it is common to
find coca mate in any market or supermarket in the country.
Among
the Bolivian desserts, the sweet cakes, the manjar blanco bars, the corn
malaskalla, the goat cheese and the lacayote candy stand out.
Soccer is the most popular sport in Bolivia. It was
practiced for the first time in 1896 with the founding of the Oruro
Royal club.
The Bolivian soccer team, known as La Verde, is the
country's representative team in official soccer competitions. Its
organization is in charge of the Bolivian Football Federation, whose
foundation dates back to September 12, 1925, 98 years ago. It has been
affiliated with FIFA since 1926 and is one of the members of Conmebol
since 1926. It played its first match on October 12, 1926 in Santiago,
Chile, corresponding to the 1926 South American Championship.
The
Bolivian national team has participated in the Soccer World Cup three
times (1930, 1950 and 1994). In the 1930 World Cup they participated as
a guest, in 1950 they managed to qualify after the withdrawal of
Argentina and Peru from the qualifiers and in the 1994 edition they
qualified by playing the corresponding qualifiers, qualifying
definitively in a match against the Ecuador team on Sunday. September
19, 1993.
Bolivia participated 26 times in the Copa América,
where they became champions, winning the 1963 edition, this title being
their greatest international achievement. He was also runner-up in the
1997 edition, with this fact he managed to qualify for the FIFA
Confederations Cup for the first and only time in the 1999 edition.
As for youth teams, Bolivia won the 1986 South American U-17
Championship and has managed to qualify for the U-17 World Cups in the
1985 and 1987 editions. The 4th place in the 1981 U-20 South American
Championships also stands out. and 1983, and also at the 2007 Pan
American Games. In 2010, the U-15 team won the gold medal at the Youth
Olympic Games after beating Haiti in the final.
Other sports with
a large number of followers are volleyball, basketball, racquetball,
cycling, motor racing, swimming and mountaineering. In the latter, the
professional mountaineer Bernardo Guarachi stands out, who was the first
Bolivian to crown the national flag at the top of Everest and climbed
the main snow-capped peaks of the Andes Mountains such as Aconcagua (3
times), Sajama (40 times). ) and Illimani (186 occasions).
Tennis player Mario Martínez won three ATP Tour tournaments.
In
chess it has an International Grandmaster, Osvaldo Zambrana. He is the
only Bolivian to achieve this title.
Bolivia is constituted as a Social Unitary State of democratic law
with a presidential regime. Although since the promulgation of the 2009
Constitution it refuses to call itself a "Republic", its state
institution, founded around democracy and the separation of powers,
implies a de facto republican form of government.
The Government
system is defined as established in Article 11 of the Political
Constitution of 2009:
Bolivia is constituted as a Social Unitary
State of Plurinational Community Law, free, independent, sovereign,
democratic, intercultural, decentralized and with autonomy. Bolivia is
founded on political, economic, legal, cultural and linguistic plurality
and pluralism, within the country's integration process.
Political
Constitution of the State (Article 1)
It calls itself
plurinational in consideration of the nearly forty indigenous ethnic
groups that live in its territory, among them are the Aymaras, Quechuas,
Yuracares, Ayoreos, Canichanas, Guarayos, Guaraníes, Mosetenes, Tacanas,
Morés, Moxeños, Urus, Reyesanos , esse ejjas, tapietés, araonas,
chiquitanos, afrobolivians, nahuas, pacahuaras, yaminahuas, chácobos,
yuquis, toromonas, baures, itonamas, cayubabas, weenhayek, machineris,
lecos, movimas, chimanes, guarasugues or pausernas, cavimeños,
joaquinianos, Mojeños, Sirionós, among others.
The Constitution
establishes the division of powers in four government bodies
Composed of the president (head of state), the vice president and the ministers of state. The president and vice president are elected by universal suffrage and serve a five-year term. Both can be re-elected only once.
The Plurinational Legislative Assembly is chaired by the vice president of State. It is made up of two chambers: the Chamber of Senators with 36 members (four representatives from each department) and the Chamber of Deputies with 130 members (half elected by direct vote and the other half elected indirectly on the list headed by the candidate to president). Its power is to approve and sanction laws. The Constitution provides for special deputations for indigenous peoples.
Formed by the Supreme Court of Justice (highest instance of ordinary jurisdiction), Tribunals, Courts and the Council of the Judiciary. Justice is administered in two types of jurisdictions: ordinary and native indigenous peasant. Constitutional justice is exercised by the Constitutional Court.
Composed of the Supreme Electoral Court (highest court made up of seven members elected by the Plurinational Legislative Assembly), Departmental Courts, Electoral Courts, Table Courts and Electoral Notaries.
The Law of August 11, 1825, provides that the capital of Bolivia is
the city of Sucre, without establishing the location of said city (the
current city of Sucre was called Chuquisaca). The Law of July 1, 1826,
establishes the city of Chuquisaca as the provisional capital of the
country, until the place where it will be the true definitive capital is
designated.
The Constituent Congress empowers the father of the
country and founder of Bolivia, Simón Bolívar, to designate the site
where the new city Sucre is to be built; and while the necessary
buildings for the government and legislative body are erected,
Chuquisaca is declared provisional capital of the Republic.
Law of
July 1, 1826
On July 12, 1839, the city of Chuquisaca (today
Sucre) was established as the official capital of Bolivia, and from then
on it was renamed from "city of Chuquisaca" to "city of Sucre":
"The
city of Chuquisaca is the Capital of the Republic and the birthplace of
the three powers of the state: Executive, Legislative and Judicial, and
in accordance with the law of August 11, 1825, it will henceforth be
called the city of Sucre."
Declaration Law, of July 12, 1839
After the triumph of La Paz over Sucre in the federal war of 1898-1899,
La Paz officially became the seat of the Executive and Legislative
powers, that is, the capital in fact. The contest faced liberals from
the north, who sought to establish a federative model; against
conservatives from the south, who held the power of the Bolivian State
with the support of the armed forces, who defended a model of unitary
order, this dispute also arose over the question of defining the
"Capital City" between La Paz and Sucre. This situation was established
on October 25, 1899, the date on which General José Manuel Pando assumed
the presidency of the Republic following the triumph of the Federal
Revolution.
On July 22, 2007, the so-called El Gran Cabildo was
held, where approximately two million inhabitants of the city of La Paz
and El Alto endorsed the permanence of the "seat of Government" (capital
in fact) in this city.
On July 22, 2007, as a result of some
political movements during the period of the 2006 Bolivian Constituent
Assembly that sought to declare Sucre as a full capital, that is,
constitutional capital and therefore seat of government, the called El
Gran Cabildo, where approximately two million inhabitants of the city of
La Paz and El Alto endorsed the permanence of the seat of government in
the city of La Paz.
Since 2009, the Powers become Bodies, the
city of La Paz is established as the headquarters of the Executive,
Legislative and Electoral Bodies; recognizing the city of Sucre as the
constitutional capital of Bolivia and seat of the Judicial Branch; as
well as the city of La Paz as the seat of government (administrative
capital).
The city of La Paz is thus established as the
administrative capital as it is the seat of government and Sucre as the
constitutional and historical capital as it is recognized in the
political constitution of the Plurinational State of Bolivia.
The political system is divided into three groups: left, center and
right, with different tendencies within these groups such as radicals,
extremists, moderates, indigenous people, among others. As in many Latin
American countries, caudillismo, populism and the emergence of social
movements of workers and peasants have been factors that gave rise to
political organizations. The body in charge of regulating electoral
political participation is the Plurinational Electoral Body (OEP).
Participatory and representative democracy
The 2009 constitution
defines a system of direct presidential democracy that is exercised in
the following ways:
Through the referendum, the citizen legislative initiative, the
revocation of mandate, the assembly, the town council and prior
consultation.
Representative
Through the election of
representatives by universal, direct and secret vote. Bolivians have the
right to vote from the age of 18.
Community
Through the election,
designation or nomination of authorities and representatives according
to the rules and procedures of the native indigenous peasant nations and
peoples.
The Constitution can be completely reformed through the
Constituent Assembly convened by referendum either by citizen initiative
with the signature of at least 20% of the electorate, by absolute
majority of the Plurinational Legislative Assembly, or by the State
Presidency. The partial reform can be carried out by citizen initiative
(signatures of at least 20% of the electorate) or by means of a reform
law approved by two-thirds of the Legislature. The reforms must be
endorsed through an approval referendum.
The Bolivian Armed Forces comprise three branches: Bolivian Army
(land), Bolivian Navy (naval) and Bolivian Air Force (air). The legal
age for voluntary admissions is 18 years and the period of service is
mandatory and generally 12 months. The Bolivian government spends less
than 2% of its GDP on defense.
In 2018, Bolivia signed the UN
Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.
Bolivia's foreign policy reflects a marked trend towards meeting the
millennium goals such as social development and the fight against
poverty. The search for external cooperation, the attraction of foreign
direct investment to modernize institutions and improve infrastructure.
The Bolivian Constitution of 2009 establishes that Bolivia is a
pacifist State that promotes the culture of peace, cooperation between
peoples and the rejection of war as an instrument for resolving
conflicts. The installation of foreign military bases on its territory
is prohibited.
Bolivia is a member of the UN and other
international organizations such as the Non-Aligned Movement, the IPU
and the WTO.
In the field of regional integration, Bolivia is a
full member of the OAS, the Andean Community of Nations (CAN), Unasur
and an associate state of Mercosur. In terms of energy and physical
integration, the country aspires to become one of the main energy
centers in South America. The country is a member of other regional
cooperation organizations such as ALADI, the Rio Treaty, the Rio Group,
the Amazon Pact, the IDB and the CAF.
Bolivia is organized territorially into nine departments, which in
turn are divided into 112 provinces, and these into 339 municipalities
and native indigenous peasant territories.
In accordance with
the provisions of the Political Constitution of the State, the Framework
Law of Autonomies and Decentralization regulates the procedure for the
preparation of Autonomous Statutes and Organic Charters, the transfer
and distribution of direct and shared powers between the central level
and the decentralized territorial entities. and autonomous. There are
four levels of decentralization:
Constituted by a Departmental Assembly, with deliberative,
supervisory and legislative powers at the departmental level. The
Departmental Executive Body is directed by the Governor who is elected
by universal suffrage.
Municipal government
Consisting of a
Municipal Council, with deliberative, supervisory and legislative powers
at the municipal level. Its executive body is chaired by the Mayor who
is elected by universal suffrage.
Regional government
Made up of
several provinces or municipalities with geographical continuity and
without transcending departmental limits. It is constituted by a
Regional Assembly with deliberative, regulatory-administrative and
supervisory powers at the regional level.
Bolivia borders to the north and east with the Federative Republic of
Brazil. To the east and southeast with the Republic of Paraguay, to the
south with the Argentine Republic, to the southwest with the Republic of
Chile, to the west with the Republic of Peru. The total perimeter of the
borders reaches 7,252 kilometers.
Borders with Argentina
This
international border begins at Cerro Zapaleri and ends at Esmeralda (a
tripartite border point between Argentina, Paraguay and Bolivia). The
main border points are Cerro Panizo, Cerro Malpaso, Villazón, Bermejo,
Fortín Campero, Yacuiba and Fortín D'Orbigny on the Pilcomayo River.
Borders with Brazil
The current boundary between Bolivia and
Brazil was achieved after the signing of the Treaty of Petrópolis in
1903, which in addition to formalizing the definitive peace between both
countries, stipulated the territorial transfer to Brazil by Bolivia of
191,000 km², which was They add to the 164,242 km² of territory ceded
after the signing of the Treaty of Ayacucho in 1867. It begins in
Bolpebra and ends in Bahía Negra (tripartite boundary between Brazil,
Paraguay and Bolivia). The main border points are: Brasiléia located in
front of Cobija, Fortín Manoa near the Madera River, Villa Bella at the
confluence of the Beni and Mamoré rivers, Cerro Cuatro Hermanos, San
Matías, the La Gaiba, Mandioré, Cáceres and Puerto Gutiérrez Guerra
lagoons. the Paraguay River.
Border with Chile
The current
boundary between Bolivia and Chile was delimited by the Treaty of Peace
and Friendship of 1904. The document stipulated the transfer of
sovereignty of the Bolivian coast to Chile, leaving the country without
sea coasts. The drawn boundary begins in Visviri (tripartite landmark
between Chile, Peru and Bolivia) and ends in Zapaleri (tripartite
landmark between Argentina, Chile and Bolivia). The main points of the
border are the Licancabur, Ollagüe volcanoes and the Payachata hills).
The border cuts some natural water currents such as the Lauca River,
which is why conflicts have arisen over the use of its waters.
Borders with Paraguay
It begins in Esmeralda and ends in Bahía Negra
(tripartite milestone between Paraguay, Brazil and Bolivia) on the Negro
River that flows into the Paraguay River. The main border points are
Cerro Ustares, Palmar de las Islas, Hito Chovoreca and Cerrito Jara.
Border with Peru
It begins in Bolpebra (tripartite boundary
between Peru, Brazil and Bolivia) and ends in Choquecota (tripartite
border between Peru, Chile and Bolivia). The most important border
points are Puerto Heath on the Madre de Dios River, Nudo de Apolobamba,
Puerto Acosta from where the border line begins to be drawn on Lake
Titicaca, Copacabana Peninsula and Desaguadero.
Upon losing its extension of maritime coast known as the Department
of the Litoral after the Pacific War, Bolivia has historically
maintained as state policy the territorial claim to Chile of a sovereign
exit to the Pacific Ocean and its maritime space. The Political
Constitution of 2009 establishes that the Bolivian State declares its
inalienable right to access to the sea and that its objective is to
resolve the maritime dispute peacefully.
Since the founding of
the UN in 1945, Bolivia has asked the General Assembly to consider its
request to recover a free and sovereign outlet to the Pacific Ocean. He
has also presented the matter to the OAS, achieving Resolution 426 in
1979, which defines the Bolivian maritime enclosure as a hemispheric
problem.
Access to the Pacific Ocean through Chile
On April 4,
1884, a truce treaty was signed with Chile, by which Chile provided ease
of passage for Bolivian products through the Port of Antofagasta,
freeing Bolivian products exported in Arica from the payment of export
duties. [citation needed] On October 20, 1904, the definitive Peace
Treaty was signed, in which Chile undertook to build a railway from
Arica to La Paz to facilitate Bolivian trade, the granting of credits,
and free transit rights to ports. in the Pacific and the payment of
£300,000.
Access to the Pacific Ocean - Boliviamar (Ilo, Peru)
The Special Economic Zone for Bolivia in Ilo (ZEEBI) consists of the
transfer of 5 km of coastline and a territorial extension of 358 ha
(3.58 km²) called Mar Bolivia in which Bolivia can use a free zone of
the port of Ilo for its administration. and operation. for a period of
99 years renewable from 1992, after which all construction and territory
passes back to Peru.
Access to the Atlantic Ocean - Paraná River
(Rosario, Argentina)
Since 1964, Bolivia has had port facilities in
the Bolivian Free Trade Zone in Rosario. Given the urban need and its
little use, its transfer to Villa Constitución, within the province of
Santa Fe, or another port in Buenos Aires is encouraged.
For
decades, Bolivia has presented its demand to various forums for a
solution to its Mediterranean identity, focusing mainly on the
territories ceded to Chile after the defeat in the Pacific War. Chile's
position historically has been that this problem is a bilateral matter
(without recognizing the participation of mediating organizations), and
respecting the existing treaties between both nations.
In 2013,
Bolivia sued Chile at the International Court of Justice in The Hague to
force Chile to negotiate a sovereign exit to the sea. The ruling was
finally in favor of Chile, discarding all points of the Bolivian state,
indicating that the Court "cannot conclude that Chile has the obligation
to negotiate full sovereign access" to the Pacific Ocean for Bolivia.
Order of the Andean Condor
The Order of the Condor of the Andes
is the highest distinction granted by Bolivia.
Constitutionally, the national emblems are the red, yellow and green
tricolor flag, the national anthem, the coat of arms, the wiphala (flag
of the Aymara culture), the cockade, the kantuta flower and the patujú
flower.
The Tricolor Flag is the main national symbol, it was
adopted on October 31, 1851 and approved by law on November 5 of the
same year during the government of Manuel Isidoro Belzu with the
definitive colors of red, yellow and green. By supreme decree of July
30, 1924, it was determined that August 17 would be commemorated as Flag
Day. In 2009, the color palette codes were established to standardize
the use of the Tricolor flag, through Supreme Decree No. 0241, of August
5, 2009 by President Evo Morales.
The National Shield of Bolivia
is the national heraldic symbol of the country, as established in the
Constitution and in accordance with the Supreme Decree of July 14, 1888,
later regulated by Supreme Decree No. 0241, of August 5, 2009 by the
president. Evo Morales.
The Wiphala has been recognized as a
national emblem since February 7, 2009, in the Political Constitution of
the State of 2009, and its use, colors and proportions are regulated by
the D.S. No. 241, August 5, 2009. This must be hoisted on the left side
of the Tricolor Flag.
The national flowers of Bolivia are the
Kantuta Tricolor that can be seen in the high valleys of the Andean
region; and the Flor de Patujú from the plains region. Both recognized
in the 2009 constitution as symbols of the State. In the government of
Bautista Saavedra, by Supreme Decree of January 1, 1924, the “Kantuta
Tricolor” was consecrated as the national emblem. In the government of
Evo Morales, they are officially recognized as “symbols of the State”
through the 2009 Constitution, with the names: “Kantuta Tricolor” and
“the Flower of Patujú”.
In 2017, the Senate of Bolivia passed Law
No. 920, of March 27, 2017, which declared the Maritime Claim Flag as an
emblem of the State, to be used in civic activities in the month of
March, and also modified the flag officially adding the wiphala to the
right of the Bolivian flag.
Bolivia's economy is mainly based on the extraction and export of its
natural resources, mainly mining and gas. The GDP per capita is one of
the lowest in Latin America. The national minimum wage is 2,060
bolivianos per month (296 dollars). The country's official currency is
the boliviano (BOB).
The most important economic activities are
mining (San Cristóbal Project) and natural gas extraction (YPFB), both
belonging to the primary sector. Within the secondary sector, the beer
(CBN), dairy (Pil Andina), oilseed (Gravetal), automotive (INMETAL),
(CAMET), cement (SOBOCE) and textile (Ametex) industries stand out for
sales. In the tertiary sector, telecommunications companies (Entel, Tigo
(Telecel), and Viva) stand out, as well as banking activity with banks
such as Banco Nacional de Bolivia, Banco Mercantil Santa Cruz, Banco
Bisa or Banco de Crédito del Perú.
In recent years, the average
GDP growth was 4.7%, achieving fiscal surpluses (for the first time
since 1940) and current account surpluses, mainly due to the policies of
nationalization of natural resources (hydrocarbons and mining) and other
sectors. such as telecommunications and energy, which allowed a
significant increase in state revenues and consequently a strong public
investment (in 2010 four times greater than in the years prior to 2006).
A slight increase in private investment was also achieved. The
economically active population rate amounts to 71.9% and the
unemployment rate is 6.5%, one of the lowest in the region.
The
most valuable export metals are tin (4th world producer), silver (7th
world producer) and copper in the West, iron and gold in the East. The
main mining deposits are: San Cristóbal (largest open pit silver mine in
the world), Mutún (1st iron and manganese deposit in the world) and the
Salar de Uyuni (one of the main reserves of potassium and lithium of the
world).
In hydrocarbons, Bolivia has the second largest reserve
of natural gas in South America (48 trillion cubic feet), with its
export to Brazil and Argentina being the country's main source of
income.
Agricultural production has acquired greater importance
in recent decades, mainly in the east, which mainly produces soybeans
(8th largest producer in the world), sugar cane and sunflowers. In the
West, products for domestic consumption such as potatoes, barley and
exportable products such as quinoa, broad beans, cocoa and coffee are
produced.
A controversial factor in the economy is the production
of coca leaf (3rd largest producer in the world) which, although
traditionally consumed for religious or medicinal purposes by a segment
of the population, is at the same time used illegally for the
manufacture of cocaine for the US and European markets.
In
livestock, the raising of cattle and pigs stands out in the east, while
in the west, the raising of camelids such as the alpaca is important for
the textile industry.
Bolivia is one of the countries with the
greatest microfinance development in the world (2nd place globally).
The fact that a large part of its economy is informal and that there
are few large industries has allowed the emergence, growth and
development of commercial and service microenterprises that receive
financial support from different highly specialized microcredit
entities.
Some parts of Bolivia are largely under the power of ranchers, the
main owners of cattle and pig farms, and many small farmers are still
reduced to peons. However, the presence of the State has increased
significantly under the government of Evo Morales. He tends to protect
the interests of large landowners while striving to improve the living
and working conditions of small farmers.
The agrarian reform
promised by Evo Morales – and approved by referendum by almost 80% of
the population – has never been launched. With the intention of
abolishing landownership by reducing the maximum size of properties
without "economic and social function" to 5000 hectares, the rest to be
divided between small agricultural workers and landless indigenous
peoples, he encountered strong opposition from the Bolivian oligarchy.
In 2009, the government gave in to the agribusiness sector, which in
return promised to end the pressure it was exerting and compromising
until the new Constitution was promulgated.
However, a series of
reforms and economic projects have improved the situation of low-income
peasant families. They have received agricultural machinery, tractors,
fertilizers, seeds and breeding animals, while the State has built
irrigation systems, as well as roads and bridges to facilitate the sale
of their production in the markets. The situation of many indigenous
people and small farmers has been regularized through the granting of
property titles to the lands they were cultivating.
In 2007, the
government created a Productive Development Bank through which small
agricultural workers and producers can request loans easily, at low
rates and with repayment terms adapted to agricultural cycles. Due to
better supervision of banking activities, borrowing rates were reduced
by a factor of three between 2014 and 2019 in all banking institutions
for small and medium-sized agricultural producers. In addition, the law
now requires that banks dedicate at least 60% of their resources to
productive loans or the construction of social housing.
With the
creation of the Food Production Assistance Company (Emapa), the
government wanted to stabilize the internal market for agricultural
products by purchasing the production of small and medium-sized farmers
at the best price, thus forcing agroindustries to offer them a higher
remuneration. fair According to Vice President Álvaro García Linera, "by
establishing the rules of the game, the State establishes a new balance
of power that gives more power to small producers. Wealth is better
redistributed to balance the power of the agroindustrial sector. This
generates stability, which that allows for a prosperous economy and
benefits everyone.
According to 2018 data, 34.3% of the land is destined for agricultural uses, 52.5% for forestry uses and 13.2% for other uses. Of the agricultural land, 3.6% is cropland, 0.2% is permanent crops and 30.5% is permanent pasture.
Bolivia is the 93rd largest export economy in the world.
Bolivia's main exported products are natural gas with USD 6.03 billion,
gold with USD 1.37 billion, zinc ore with USD 993 million, crude oil
with USD 755 million and soybean meal with USD 714 million.
Bolivian foreign trade is small scale. However, trade exchange has
maintained consecutive growth in recent years.
Bolivia's exports
totaled a record 9.04 billion US dollars in 2011, 2 billion more than in
2010. In 2020, Bolivia's exports fell to 7.02 billion dollars.
The high international prices of hydrocarbons and minerals allowed us to
achieve this result since these represented almost 3/4 (72%) of Bolivian
sales abroad.
The oil sector depends almost exclusively on sales
of natural gas to Brazil, the country's main trading partner, and
Argentina. Mining reached total exports of 1,517 million dollars, with
Japan as its main market, which demands zinc, silver and lead, and
India, which accounts for the majority of gold production. Other main
destinations for Bolivian products in descending order are: Peru, China,
Colombia, United States, United Arab Emirates, Japan and South Korea. By
economic blocs, the sale of merchandise from Bolivia has Mercosur as its
main destination due to its geographical proximity, which is followed by
Nafta and the CAN.
Imports in CIF terms totaled 7,605 million
dollars in 2011, a higher amount compared to 2010. In recent years,
increases have been recorded in imports of intermediate goods for
industrial and construction purposes (14%), capital for productive
growth and transportation (30%) and consumption (26%). Also notable is
the increase in the import of fuels (diesel, kerosene and lubricants) to
supply the domestic market, especially the agroindustrial sector.
With the increase in exports, the amount of deposits in foreign
currency and gold--called Net International Reserves (RIN)--controlled
by the Central Bank of Bolivia increased from 1,085 million dollars in
the year 2000 (government of Hugo Banzer Suárez ) to 15,123 million
dollars at the end of 2014 in the government of Evo Morales. The
decrease in the RIN starting in 2015 is due to the decrease in the value
of exports, an increase in imports and the use of these resources by the
government to cover the fiscal deficit.
The monetary sphere of
Bolivia has been characterized in recent years by a significant
expansion of monetary aggregates as a consequence of the increase in
international reserves and the replacement of the dollar by the Bolivian
in commercial practices. The historical milestone represented by these
figures achieved by the government of Evo Morales allowed Bolivia to
rise in the international credit rating.
Tourism is mainly concentrated in La Paz, with 46.5%; Santa Cruz de
la Sierra 28.3% and Cochabamba 8%, which add up to 82.2% of
international inbound tourism. While internal tourism was directed to
Santa Cruz with 28.7%; La Paz 23.6% and Cochabamba 15.4%, which
accounted for 67.9% of the total displacements of Bolivians in the
country.
By the end of 2010, more than 1.7 million foreign
visitors were expected to arrive in Bolivia. There are already hundreds
of thousands of Bolivians who work in jobs directly or indirectly
related to tourism: hotels, inns, restaurants, nightlife centers,
passenger transportation, airlines, souvenir making, etc. However, two
problems persist that prevent comprehensive development of the activity:
Political unrest: the internal upheaval of recent years, with
numerous deaths, has damaged the country's image abroad
Poor land
communications: except for the roads that link the three main cities, La
Paz, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia's road network is
in poor condition.
Bolivia contains diverse ecosystems and soils
throughout its territory, and tourism covers all areas of the country
from the Altiplano, with numerous mountains and hills at more than 6000
m above sea level. n. m. and desert landscapes, to the Llanos region,
with a tropical climate and exuberant vegetation. The extensive
territory of the country is endowed with great tourist attractions, both
historical and natural.
The Andean region stands out as a
favorite center for foreign tourists. They are attracted by a region
full of mountains, some relatively easy for mountaineering, such as
Huayna Potosí, near the city of La Paz.
The Tiwanaku ruins are
some of the most important in South America. Madidi National Park is
considered by National Geographic as a region rich in biodiversity. Lake
Titicaca, often called the lake that wished to be the sea, is the
highest navigable lake in the world and the legendary birthplace of the
Inca Empire.
The Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, located in
the department of Santa Cruz, was declared a Natural Heritage of
Humanity by UNESCO. The impressive beauty of the landscape, as well as
the varied and abundant animal life and the botanical interest they
contain, have turned this place into one of the most beautiful tourist
centers in the country. The country also has Jesuit missions, which are
still active and preserved, unlike those in Argentina, Brazil or
Paraguay.
Cerro Rico in the city of Potosí was, in its time, the
most important silver vein known. UNESCO declared this hill and the city
of Potosí a World Heritage Site for presenting numerous colonial-style
buildings, such as the Mint, from which silver coins were minted
outwards.
The Uyuni salt flat, often described as a sea made of
salt,171 is the largest continuous salt flat on Earth, and has the
largest lithium reserve in the world. Near the area there are other
tourist attractions such as the colored lagoons such as Colorada and
Verde, in the southwest of Bolivia.
The city of Sucre, Capital of
the Plurinational State, the oldest city in the country, which was also
named a World Heritage Site, city of the four names, with unparalleled
colonial, classical and republican architecture, in addition to the
Bolivian Independence Hall.
Mountaineering is practiced in
various places in the country within the Andes. Bolivia has around a
thousand peaks at more than 5000 m above sea level, of which at least
twelve exceed 6000 above sea level.; spread across four mountain ranges,
such as the Cordillera Real, the main area for practicing mountain
sports in the country, and the Apolobamba mountain range, in the
northwest. The Chacaltaya ski slope is the highest in the world.
The city of Tupiza, called "The Beautiful Jewel of Bolivia, nestled in a
beautiful valley surrounded by red hills, incredible landscapes, and its
culture, attracts foreign tourists all year round.
Bolivia has
numerous roads and paths, some dating back to the time of the Incas.
Most of the most important routes begin around La Paz, cross the
Cordillera Real and end in the tropical region of Los Yungas. The most
popular and recommended trails are those called Choro, Takesi, Yunga
Cruz, Mapiri, Camino de Oro, Circuito Illampu and Apolobamba.
The electricity generated in Bolivia comes from hydroelectric plants
(42%) and thermoelectric plants (58%). The energy balance of 2008 was
positive with a generation of the National Interconnected System (SIN)
of 5,372 GWh and a national consumption of 5,138 GWh. The hydroelectric
potential is 39,850 MW, which can be exported to neighboring countries.
Bolivia had the second largest natural gas basin in South America
(after Venezuela) and was the 30th largest basin worldwide, with a total
of 750,400 million cubic meters at the beginning of 2009. In 2011,
proven reserves declined to a quarter and had 281,500 million cubic
meters after Venezuela, Mexico, Brazil, Peru and Argentina in Latin
America.
There are also solar and wind energy collection
facilities, although to a lesser extent than the first.
Bolivia
produces up to 35 million cubic meters of gas per day, which it exports
almost entirely to Brazil and Argentina, and has committed to pumping
another 20 million cubic meters to the Argentine market starting in
2010.
Yacimientos Petroliferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) also
plans to supply at least eight million cubic meters of gas for the El
Mutún steel complex, in the southeastern corner of the country, while
seeking to open the markets of Paraguay and Uruguay.
It is
estimated that the change in the coming years will increase
availabilities to approximately 200 or 300 trillion cubic feet, which
will place the country in first place, with the additional advantage
that Bolivian gas is free of liquids.
Gas activity is the main
source of foreign currency in the Bolivian economy, since it is mainly
exported to Argentina and Brazil, with the latter having a sales
contract for 30 million cubic feet per day for 21 years.
In March
2014, a wind farm was inaugurated in Qollpana, Department of Cochabamba,
which contributes three megawatts of electricity.
Bolivia's transportation network is divided into:
Air
Transport
Made up of four international airports: Viru Viru
International Airport in Santa Cruz, Jorge Wilstermann International
Airport in Cochabamba, El Alto International Airport in La Paz and Juan
Mendoza in Oruro. There are also about 1,061 small air terminals and
airfields with paved or dirt runways located in different locations in
the country. The main national airlines are Amaszonas, Ecojet and
Boliviana de Aviación (BOA). The annual passenger flow is more than 2.3
million.
River transport
Around 10,000 km of commercially
navigable waterways. Highlights include: the Ichilo-Mamoré Axis in the
Amazon Basin, the Paraguay-Paraná Waterway in the Plata Basin and the
lake trade of Puerto Guaqui in the Endorheic Basin. Bolivia has
navigation agreements with Peru, Chile, Argentina, Brazil and Paraguay
that allow the country's commercial cargo to be transported to the
Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean.
Ground transportation
Made up of road and rail transport. Both represent around 92% of
passenger transport and 85% of cargo transport. The highway road system
has a length of 67,076 km administratively divided into: Fundamental
Network (Bolivian Highway Administration), Departmental Network
(Departmental Autonomous Governments) and Municipal Network (Municipal
Autonomous Governments). 49% of the total roads are paved, and 50% of
the fundamental network is paved. The rest is dirt or gravel. The
geographical location of the country allows it to be the center of
integration corridors such as the East-West Bioceanic Corridor that
links Brazil (Cuiabá, Brasilia and Santos) with Chile (Arica and
Iquique) and Peru (Ilo and Tacna). For its part, the railway system has
a length of more than 3,700 km divided into the Eastern Network, which
connects Bolivia with Brazil and Argentina, and the Western Network,
which integrates the country with Peru, Argentina and Chile.
Bolivia has a telecommunications system that covers most of the
territory. There are more than 846,000 landline telephone lines and more
than 7,201,000 mobile telephone subscribers. The number of internet
users exceeds 560,000. Internet penetration is one of the lowest in the
region 4.4 %.
In December 2013, Bolivia's first space satellite
was launched into orbit, called TKSAT-1 "Túpac Katari" with a
geostationary orbit at the position 87.2° West. To date, it transmits
national as well as international TV and radio signals using the DTH
system and Internet throughout the country, it will also serve for other
forms of telecommunications.
Television and radio are the main
means of communication in the country. There are about 48 television
stations and 321 radio stations at the national and regional levels. The
main television networks in the country are the state-owned Bolivia TV,
and the private ones Red Unitel, Red ATB, Red UNO, Red PAT, Bolivision,
RTP (Bolivia), Gigavisión and Cadena A. The main radio broadcasters are
the private ones Fides, Panamericana , Radio FmBolivia, Erbol, WKM
Radio, Activa, Loyola, La Red, Pio XII, Éxito and the state-owned Patria
Nueva.
The written press is concentrated in private regional
newspapers that in some cases have national circulation. The main
newspapers are El Diario (La Paz), El Deber (Santa Cruz), La Razón (La
Paz), Página Siete (La Paz), Los Tiempos (Cochabamba), El Día (Santa
Cruz), La Prensa (La Paz ), El Potosí (Potosí), El Alteño (El Alto),
Correo del Sur (Sucre), Sureño (Tupiza) and Change of state character.