Colombia (officially the Republic of Colombia) is a country in
the northwest of South America, with territories in Central America.
The capital is Bogota. It borders with Brazil and Venezuela in the
east, in the south with Ecuador and Peru, in the west with Panama.
It borders by sea with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Jamaica,
Haiti and the Dominican Republic. It is washed by the Caribbean Sea
in the north and the Pacific Ocean in the west. In terms of
population, the country ranks 2nd in South America after Brazil,
28th in the world and 2nd in terms of the number of Hispanic
population.
The territory of present-day Colombia was once
inhabited by indigenous peoples, the most developed of which are
Chibcha, Quimbaya and Tayrona, the country is one of the richest in
the world in terms of the number of peoples living and the languages
they use. The modern Colombian people appeared during the mixing of
Europeans, Africans and the indigenous population, a significant
number of people from the Middle East live in the Colombian
Caribbean. Colombia is home to the Amazon rainforest and the Llanos
Orinoco. Colombia is the second most biodiverse country in the
world. 54,871 species have been recorded here. However, it is among
the eight countries with the greatest environmental damage.
For the first time, Spanish colonialists entered Colombian soil in
1499, and the first half of the 16th century saw a period of active
conquests, which resulted in the creation of the Viceroyalty of New
Granada with its capital in Bogotá. In 1819, independence from Spain
was recognized, but already in 1831 the federation of Great Colombia
collapsed. On the territory of modern Colombia and Panama, the
Republic of New Granada was formed (1832), which was then
transformed into the Granada Confederation (1858), and even later -
into the United States of Colombia (1863). The final name of the
Republic of Colombia was received in 1886, in 1903 Panama withdrew
from the country.
The Colombian economy ranks 4th in Latin
America, is part of the CIVETS and a member of the UN, WTO, OAS, the
Pacific Alliance and other international organizations.
Colombian territory is divided into five well-defined major regions:
Caribbean lowlands (Región Caribe de colombi) . covers the north to the
Isthnus of Darién and the area around Cartágena.
Andean highlands
(Region andina de Colombia). is the center of the population of Colombia
and is located in the central part of the country.
Amazon region
(Región Amazónica) occupies the southeast, is sparsely populated and
tropically hot. It is one of the most biologically diverse areas in the
world and is home to an enormous biodiversity, including many endemic
species. It is also home to indigenous peoples such as the Ticuna, Yagua
and Huitoto. Due to its remoteness and difficult access, the Amazon
region of Colombia has remained largely untouched by civilization.
However, it is also an area affected by illegal activities such as
illegal logging, mining and drug trafficking, which endanger the
environment and indigenous people.
Orinoco Region (Región de la
Orinoquía) is located in the northeast and is also known as Llanos
Orientales. Here you will find a huge wet savannah that is very sparsely
populated.
Pacific region (Región Pacífica) in the west is one of the
rainiest areas on earth.
Insular Region (Region insular de Colombia).
The archipelago known as San Andrés and Providencia deserves special
mention here.
1 Barranquilla. Port city on the Pacific with no real sights.
Barranquilla is known as one of the world's largest carnival
strongholds. Carnival is celebrated here on the four days leading up to
Ash Wednesday. It is an Oral World Heritage Site by the United Nations,
the largest folk festival in Colombia and one of the five most important
carnivals in the world.
2 Bogota. Capital with approx. eight million
inhabitants with many sights.
3 Cartagena de Indias . one of the most
beautiful cities, the old town is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
4
Medellin. Once the drug crime capital, the city has since changed for
the better. There is rather little to see in terms of attractions.
5
Cali internet (Santiago de Cali). Capital of the Valle del Cauca
department and capital of salsa with few sights but beautiful
surroundings.
6 Leticia located on the Amazon in the rainforest.
7
Popayan. The main attraction of Popayán is its colonial architecture. In
particular, the old town with its white colonial buildings and street
lamps has a special charm.
8 Mompox (Centro histórico de Santa Cruz
de Mompox;). Founded in 1540 by Juan de Santa Cruz, the historic center
is characterized by residential and religious architecture that has
retained its colonial character.
entry requirements
Tourists from Europe receive a visa-free
residence permit for 90 days upon entry. This can be extended by a
maximum of a further 90 days at any Migración Colombia branch. The small
fee (about €20) can be paid by card on site or into the nearest Banco de
Occidente account. "Aktenzeichen" means "trámite." The paperwork takes
half a day in smaller towns, in the big cities you have to wait a week.
It helps if you show up early to take your number, Bogotá opens at
7:30am. Since October 2021 there is the possibility to extend a tourist
residence permit online (Spanish only). The corresponding point is
“Permiso Temporal de Permanencia para Prorrogar Permanencia.” This
procedure is free for citizens of the Schengen countries.
Since
the reform of the long-term visa categories on Dec. 15, 2017, there are
about thirty types of residence permits with or without a work permit.
Anyone who overdraws pays a fine that is at least half the legal monthly
minimum wage.
Upon arrival by plane, a customs form must be
filled out. This also applies if the luggage has been checked through to
a connecting flight.
duty-free amounts
200 cigarettes or 50 cigars
or 50 grams of tobacco.
2 bottles of alcohol.
There is a
duty-free shop in the arrivals area of Bogotá Airport. The prices there
are not very attractive for Central Europeans.
By plane
Flights from Central Europe to Bogotá depart from Frankfurt am Main
(Lufthansa, non-stop) and Munich (until 2020 Avianca). 2022 Air
France/KLM with a change in Paris or Amsterdam or Iberia or AirEuropa
via Madrid offer cheaper connections. If you use US companies, the
flight time increases enormously due to the changeover in the USA. In
addition, you have to endure the harassment of Homeland Security because
there are no transit areas in the USA.
Colombians and foreigners
who have stayed in the country more than 60 days pay an airport tax of
US$ 32 (Apr. 2022) for international flights, which is not included in
the ticket price.
By train
There is no train service to
Colombia or within the country.
In the street
Panama
The
Transamericana, a road supposedly leading from Tierra del Fuego to
Alaska, is broken between the two countries. There is no road crossing.
However, travelers often cross the border between Puerto Obaldía (PAN)
and Capurganá (KOL) on foot. The Panamanian border police, near the port
in Puerto Obaldía, will keep a photocopy of the passport (bring it
yourself). Compared to multi-day jungle trails through the Darién
National Park (PAN) and Los Katíos National Park, this is a
comparatively safe and not difficult route. The footpath goes over the
hills behind La Miél (8° 39′ 58″ N 77° 22′ 11″ W) (PAN) to Sapzurro
(KOL). There is a police post there, but it does not carry out border
clearance. For this you have to go to Capurganá, which is about 3km
away.
Small motorboats also run between these places, landing at
Playa Blanca (PAN near La Miel) and Sapzurro (KOL) respectively.
Ecuador
Between Ipiales (KOL) and Tulcán (ECU) is the Puente
Internacional de Rumichaca wikipediacommons (0° 48′ 55″ N 77° 39′ 54″
W). This is the most important crossing between both countries.
A
little more remote is the Puente Internacional (0° 15′ 5″ N 76° 52′ 34″
W) which leads over the Rio San Miguel in General Farfán - the place is
called that in both countries. The nearest larger towns are Nueva Loja
(= Lago Agrio; ECU) and San Miguel in Putumayo (KOL).
Venezuela
Paraguachón (11° 21′ 35″ N 72° 7′ 43″ W) in La Guajira. Between Maicao
(KOL) and Paraguaipoa (VEN), continue to Maracaibo.
Between Cúcuta
(KOL) and Ureña (VEN):
Heavy traffic is not allowed via Puente
Francisco de Paula Santander (7° 55′ 0″ N 72° 27′ 45″ W).
a few
kilometers south is the Puente Internacional de Tienditas (7° 52′ 37″ N
72° 27′ 7″ W). Completed in 2019, it was initially only opened to
pedestrians in 2021.
important for trucks, connecting the Venezuelan
N1 to San Cristóbal, is the Puente Internacional Simón Bolívar bridge
(7° 49′ 4″ N 72° 27′ 2″ W) between the municipalities of Villa Rosario
(KOL) and San Antonio del Táchira (VEN ).
Since the beginning of
the crisis in Venezuela in 2015, this border area, which is secured by
thousands of soldiers in the surrounding area from the Colombian side,
has been repeatedly closed for more or less long periods of time, or the
opening times have been severely limited. There were still reports of
violent acts by (uniformed) gunmen in 2022.
In Arauca (KOL), the
Puente is José Antonio Páez (7° 5′ 19″ N 70° 44′ 25″ W). The security
situation in this area can be precarious.
Brazil and Peru
In
the Peru-Colombia-Brazil border triangle, you can cross the land border
at Tabatinga/Laetitia (4° 15′ 9″ S 69° 56′ 17″ W). You have to translate
to Peru by boat. This place can be reached by boat from Iquitos or
Manaus. There is no land connection in Colombia, only flights.
By
boat
There are no regular ferry connections to neighboring countries
(anymore). Cruise ships dock primarily in Cartagena.
Sailboats
run fairly regularly on the Cartagena - San Blas Islands (PAN, mostly El
Porvenir) route from there to Puerto Lindo/Portobello or directly by
speedboat to the mainland to Carti or Miramar. Driving time 4-5 nights
including island hopping. Corresponding contacts are made in the yacht
clubs of Cartagena. Such a ride costs from US$ 600. The Bluesailing
agency has a number of boats under contract and also checks their
safety.
There is significantly less traffic on the Pacific coast
between Bahía Solano (KOL) and Jaqué (PAN).
Colombia is actually divided into three areas: in the north-west the
coast with a flat hinterland, from south-west to north-east the three
cordillera (mountains up to 5750m high) and in the south-east virtually
uninhabited flat land. Most of the cities are in the Cordilleras - which
are not exactly suitable for the construction of highways and railway
lines. So most roads are rather winding mountain pass roads - also the
connections between the big cities.
Some towns in the Amazon
region, such as the Leticia border post or Puerto Nariño, can only be
reached by air or river boat.
By bus
In Colombia you can go
everywhere by bus. Every major city has a central long-distance bus
station (terminal de pasajeros), the one in the city center is rare.
They usually run hourly between larger cities. Hmm, not much less often
anywhere else either. Most of the time you can just drive to the bus
terminal and find the right bus there and then you don't have to wait
long for it to leave. You really only need to make reservations around
Christmas/New Year and Holy Week. Some buses also just run when they are
full. Bus rides are pretty cheap, especially if you bargain. If you get
on the way, you pay the Ayudante.
Medellín - Barranquilla: ~8
hours
Medellín - Cali: ~7 hours
Medellín - Pereira: ~4 hours
Medellín - Santa Fe de Antioquia (only on the other side of the
mountain): ~3 hours
Bogotá - Pereira: ~9 hours (~38 km/h)
Bogotá -
Medellín: 9 hours (~49 km/h)
Bogotá - Barranquilla: 20 hours (~50
km/h)
Bogotá - Cali: 12 hours (~40 km/h)
Bogotá - Ipiales: 24
hours (~40 km/h)
Bogotá - Manizales: 8 hours (~37 km/h)
Bogotá -
Tunja: 3 hours (~50 km/h)
So it fundamentally depends on how many
and how high mountains lie between the starting point and the
destination.
Bus companies: Rápido Ochoa, Expreso Brasilia,
Empresa Arauca and thousands more.
As in Southeast Asia, the air
conditioning is set to "ice cold" on long-distance routes, and there is
also loud music or television. Don't forget a blanket, pillow and
earplugs. WiFi is often advertised, but whether it works is another
question. If the bus is too slow or too dangerous for you, take the
plane.
Colectivos are minibuses that can compete with the
marshrutki of the former Soviet Union in terms of inconvenience and
narrowness. Busetas are small buses used in cities and on routes of less
than four hours. Air-conditioned, normal buses operate on long-distance
routes. If there are those with "business class" you have a little more
space.
In the street
Traffic is on the right. Petrol costs
about a third of the price in Germany. Gas stations sometimes bill in
gallons, which are the US 3.8 liters.
Maximum speeds: 30 km/h in
built-up areas, 60 km/h in urban areas, 80 km/h on country roads, 100
km/h on motorways. Many highways are toll roads. Outside of town, you
also drive with your headlights on during the day. Buckling up and using
hands-free kits is mandatory. Likewise helmets on motorcycles.
Even the Colombians who own a car usually only drive within a 100km
radius of their city. Everything else is usually done by bus or plane.
But of course you can also go by car. The road quality is okay. There
are almost exclusively country roads - which can be quite winding in the
Andes due to their nature. The bus drivers have a rather sporty driving
style, so you won't be much faster by car. Guarded paid parking lots are
called “parqueaderos.”
Car rental companies require a minimum age
of 23. An international driver's license from the Geneva Convention is
required in addition to the home driver's license.
taxis
Municipalities set taxi prices annually. You should find out about these
on the internet. It doesn't hurt to show the route on google maps. The
driver's license must be clearly visible on the back of the passenger
seat. Since there are hardly any taximeters (which are used in
conjunction with a tariff table) except in Bogotá, you still have to
negotiate the costs beforehand. Those who can speak Spanish have a clear
advantage here. Luggage is included, the price is per car not passenger.
Small surcharges for telephone orders, (working) air conditioning, night
trips 8pm/9pm-5am are normal. There is also a surcharge for airport
taxis. Large bills cause problems with change. It is customary to round
up to the nearest thousand.
By plane
If the bus is too slow
for you, you can take the plane - but that usually costs a lot of money
(at least by Colombian standards).
For the slightly smaller
travel budget, there are also low-cost airlines such as Viva Air
Colombia and Wingo. Be careful when booking as there are hidden costs.
Booking is not as regulated as in the EU.
But you can actually
fly to anywhere that has an airport. A tourist tax of COP$ 36,000 will
be collected at check-in on flights to Puerto Carreño effective June 1,
2020.
Airlines: Avianca, Copa Airlines, LAN, Satena, the low-cost
airlines Viva Air Colombia and Wingo (both also to neighboring
countries) and many smaller ones that only offer short-haul routes.
There was 4430 Colombian peso (COP$) for one euro in July 2022, down
15% from the previous year. As everywhere in Latin America, the dollar
sign ($) stands for peso.
Images of valid notes and coins at the
National Bank.
When exchanging cash in exchange offices (“casas
de cambio”) you only get a reasonable exchange rate for US$.
The
maximum amounts that can be withdrawn from ATMs are comparatively small.
300,000 or 400,000 is the norm, plus COP$10-15,000 for the local bank on
top of home fees. Only BBVA and Davivienda do without it. The latter
also has slots that pay out up to COP$800,000. In order not to be
immediately discarded of the money you have withdrawn with a gun held to
your neck, it is advisable not to use ATMs on the street, but only in
shopping centers or similar. Credit cards can also be withdrawn at the
counter (with PIN). Banks open 9am-3.30pm. You always need your
passport, and a thumbprint is also gladly taken.
People who pay by
credit card are sometimes asked: “¿En cuantas cuotas?” i.e. H. “in how
many installments?” which is possible for Colombians up to 24. As a
foreigner, the answer here is “una” (“one”).
Cigarettes are
significantly cheaper than in Europe, 2019 COP$ 2500-3500. A quarter of
the market is even cheaper contraband.
The metric system is in
use, although fresh food is also sold by the pound (libras).
VAT
refund
Anyone who, as a tourist, has collected receipts for tourist
services or clothing, leather, handicrafts, etc. (but not food and
drinks) for a certain minimum amount can have the 19% VAT refunded at
the airport, which requires a certain amount of paperwork and a passport
copy. Details on Customs website (DIAN). The minimum rate corresponds to
10 "tax units" (UVT) and is set annually. In 2018 it was COP$ 330,000
(approx. € 80), the upper limit is 100 UVT. In the case of accommodation
costs, you have to book from abroad or complain directly to the hotel
that you do not have to pay the tax. Another catch is that only services
that were paid for with a card issued abroad will be reimbursed.
Inexpensive lunch menus are called plato del diá or comida corriente.
In better restaurants, the waiter asks at the checkout whether a service
charge is given, which is ten percent. If you were dissatisfied, you can
certainly decline with “sin servicio, por favor”. Then the boss often
comes and asks what didn't fit.
Colombia is 51% covered by
rainforest. This enables a very large biodiversity of the animal world,
which in turn is reflected in the Colombian cuisine. Colombian cuisine
is very regional and has many differences. Extraordinary specialties
such as roasted ants or guinea pigs are considered delicacies in some
regions - but cause the same shaking of heads in other regions, such as
Germany. But soups and sauces based on Aji Amarillo (a type of pepper)
are also often found. Beef, whether steamed or fried, and chicken are
popular dishes. Fish is also offered in the regions around the sea. This
is usually prepared in coconut milk and served with coconut rice.
The range of fresh fruit is overwhelming: in the supermarket there
are five different types of mangoes (very small and green with lemon and
salt as a snack, small for juice, up to shoe size), six different types
of bananas (small, large, sweet, for cooking, for roasting, also sorted
by degree of ripeness (green, yellow, black)) and seven different types
of potatoes (yellow, pink, ping-pong ball-sized and also like ours).
Well, and there is also a bunch of fruit that I have never seen in
Germany. Fresh fruit juices are then made from these whole fruits -
either with water or with milk. Yummy!
The main foods are the
arepas popular in Antioquia (made of cornmeal with water, topped with
cheese, sweet or not, with egg inside, yellow or white, fried or baked,
etc.) and rice (which comes as a side dish with almost everything). .
Ajiaco is a creamy chicken soup that originated in the Andes. Bandeja
paisa is a plate full of sausage, beans, rice and egg. Originally from
Ecuador, llapingachos are potato pancakes that are often served with
salsa de maní, made from peanuts.
beverages
In Europe, people
tend to associate Colombia with coffee - and the Colombians themselves
tell you that the coffee they drink in Colombia isn't that good because
all the good coffee is exported.
Local breweries include Club
Colombia, Pilsen, Aguila, Apostol and Costeña. A beer costs less in the
shop than in Europe.
Michelada is a beer mixed drink. The rim of
a glass is dipped in lime juice, then salt. Some lime juice is poured
into the glass and it is filled with beer.
Where there is wine,
it is often imported from Chile and California, although there are some
smaller wine-growing regions in the country. Schnapps, first and
foremost rum and Aquardiente are comparatively expensive from €10 per
bottle.
Larger cities all have a zona rosa, the nightlife district. But there
are also red-light districts, since prostitution is not prohibited and
is necessary due to economic hardship, especially among refugees from
Venezuela. Colombia's neoliberal economic order provides only very
limited social security.
In better nightclubs, a drink can cost
as much as COP$13,000.
There are hardly any campsites.
The international network of
youth hostels has a number of hostels in big cities. Otherwise, private
“hostels” (with dormitories) should be distinguished from the Spanish
“hostal”, which is more of a simple hotel or guesthouse. Other terms for
simpler accommodation are residencia, hospedaje or posada. They are
often concentrated in areas around the markets.
Especially hotels
in the lower middle class are rare in the country, the upper segment is
the rule for hotels. Anyone who books better hotels or resorts from
abroad has been exempt from the 19% VAT since 2016. freed. If necessary,
one must refer to this regulation.
Spanish. Those who have acquired their knowledge in Spain should note
that the "you" (Usted/Ustedes + 3rd person) is much more common
throughout South America. It is particularly appropriate for officials
on duty.
University graduates usually know some level of English
as well. However, my experience is that everyone is pretty nice, patient
and helpful - even if the Spanish falters a bit.
As everywhere in South America, carnival is taken seriously and
celebrated. There are also numerous regional festivals and festivals,
which are listed in the respective articles.
Public holidays
A
nice economics minister once decided that all Christian holidays (apart
from Christmas) should always be postponed to the following Monday.
After Christmas, Semana Santa (Holy Week, the week before Easter) is
most important and in many companies is completely, but at least mostly,
free. As a predominantly Catholic country, most of the festivals of this
sect are celebrated, but as mentioned, on the following Monday. So was
e.g. B. Epiphany (January 6) in 2022 on January 10 off work. The same
applies to Josephi (Monday after March 19), Corpus Christi, Monday after
June 8, 2023, Peter and Paul (Monday after June 19), May 29, 2023,
Ascension Day, Monday after May 18, 2023, Conception of the Virgin Mary
(Monday after Dec 8).
Secular holidays are New Year on January
1st, Labor Day on May 1st, Independence Day on July 20th, Anniversary of
the Battle of Boyacá in 1819 on August 7th, “Día de la Raza” (“Day of
the Races” one celebrates the cultural Diversity) on October 17th and
“Independencia de Cartagena” (Cartagena's independence 1811) on November
14th.
In general, the situation in Colombia is that there are normal nice
people, police officers and paramilitaries. The last two now live on
racketeering, kidnapping and drugs. Drug cartels (Calikartell, Pablo
Escobar) no longer exist. The normal nice people are clearly in the
majority :-)
The situation has improved dramatically since President
Álvaro Uribe took office. The social-revolutionary guerrilla FARC-EP has
made peace and entered parliament as a party Comunes. There are still
right-wing paramilitaries, often protection groups for drug producers.
Fines are calculated by a factor (or a range) that is multiplied by
the monthly minimum wage that is set annually (2022: 1 million pesos).
But there are still areas where you shouldn't drive. Strolling
through the woods somewhere or following any mountain trails is not
advisable - because that's exactly where the paramilitaries live and
plant their coca. If you want to travel outside of a city, you should
plan well where you want to go. If possible, travel with a reliable
local.
Requisas are military roadblocks. Buses are particularly
popular here at night and identity cards are often searched for weapons,
including those on the body. Extremely annoying when you are woken up
for the fifth time in one night.
In the cities of Colombia one
should have good manners and follow a few common precautions. In the
centers of most cities it is fairly rare to have potential problems, but
it is very important to be careful in the outer parts of a city. There
are neighborhoods in the big cities where you shouldn't be a tourist,
and armed robberies happen even in broad daylight. Don't expect help
from viewers. However, compared to most other Latin American countries,
normal street crime is not as high. If you want to order a taxi, you
should politely ask for a phone, it costs the same and a call is
answered immediately.
As a tourist, you should actually keep
three things in mind:
Some areas are dangerous.
Jungle near
Leticia: If one of the crew strolls over the boat with a machine gun on
a boat tour at night to keep bad people away, then that does not
indicate a particularly high level of security.
Sierra Nevada de
Santa Marta: There are said to be beautiful old Indian houses here, but
also a particularly high probability of being kidnapped. Germans have
also been kidnapped here (every Colombian the writer of this section
asked about the security of this region strongly advised against it).
Area between Cali and Popayan: For a long time it was considered to be
very unsafe because the main guerrilla settlement area was nearby. But
should have improved. You should ask people about the current situation.
In any case, it is definitely not the safest region in Colombia.
Bad people are blocking the road.
Occasionally the paramilitaries
block the road somewhere and stop buses and cars. The most promising of
the inmates are kidnapped or have to leave their money or their car.
Foreigners (who are almost non-existent in Colombia) are not necessarily
at the top of the list, because Colombians already know how to handle
the ransom etc., speak Spanish and are just generally much less
complicated. Well, but a foreigner can of course be a big catch.
The
author of this section has twice had his intercity bus take a different
route because the shortest route was blocked by paramilitaries.
There
is also a rumor that the more expensive bus companies are paying money
to the guerrillas and paramilitaries to be spared.
General
caution!
well, the typical thing: don't strap the camera to your
chest, put your wallet in your front pocket, leave valuables at home,
stay away from bad people, don't walk around alone at night
Drugs: Most of the cocaine used in the US and Europe used to come from
Colombia, but now production has plummeted, with much being smuggled out
of Venezuela. Local consumption is low, so you will not be offered drugs
there, nor will you see all kinds of drugs there unless you look for
them. Colombians are so offended by jokes about drugs outside the
country, especially by Europeans and Americans. Drugs and mafia have
created a bad image, but now the police and the armed army are trying
hard to fight them. All Colombian governments have had obligations to
combat drug production. President Alvaro Uribe Velez, with great help
from the US government, has implemented a policy of massively destroying
drug plantations with chemical defoliation.
Possession, not
trafficking, of small amounts for personal use (1 gram of cocaine, 20
grams of marijuana) has been decriminalized, but this does not protect
against awkward prolonged encounters with the often corrupt police.
In summary, Colombia is quite dangerous compared to Europe. But it's
not so bad that you can't go there at all.
Malaria risk areas are the Amazon region and the 50 km wide coastal
strip from Covenas to the border of Ecuador. In short, all regions below
1700 m. The major cities of Barranquilla, Bogotá, Cali, Cartagena,
Medellín, Santa Marta are free of malaria. About half of the infections
are caused by Plasmodium falciparum (i.e. malaria tropica), of which
multidrug-resistant forms occur nationwide. All-day mosquito repellent
is recommended in the lower regions, as Zika, dengue and chikungunya
fevers also occur.
Travelers coming from Brazil must provide
proof of yellow fever vaccination. Domestically, it is required for
travel to the Parque Nacional Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Parque
Tayrona and the various reserves of the Amazon.
In acute
life-threatening cases, hospitals are legally obliged to treat patients
initially, regardless of existing insurance or solvency. Nevertheless, a
travel health insurance makes sense.
Smoking is prohibited in
practically all publicly accessible indoor areas, including bars and
restaurants.
Colombia offers palm-fringed Caribbean beaches, 18,000-foot mountains
topped with glaciers, and everything in between. Due to its location on
the equator, the weather and the length of the days are almost the same
all year round. It rains a bit more often in the rainy season and less
frequently in the dry season.
Like in Germany, that it rains for
two weeks in a row and then it's nice for another two weeks or something
like that doesn't exist in Colombia. There are no seasons either:
instead, Colombians speak of winter when they are cold. (So if it's a
bit chilly in the morning at 20°C, the Colombian will say "What a winter
today!", but that doesn't stop him from complaining about the heat at
midday (32°C).)
Much more serious than any seasons is the
difference in where you are.
Barranquilla + Cartagena (on the
coast): 25-38°C, always sunshine, thunderstorms every few days (which
then flood the streets)
Medellín (in a valley surrounded by 3500 m
mountains, 1500 m asl): 17–32°C, like midsummer in Germany,
thunderstorms every few days (which only slightly flood the streets)
Cali: a tad warmer than Medellín
Bogotá (in a wide high valley, 2800m
above sea level): 10-25°C, like autumn in Germany, rain four times a day
is not uncommon, some people walk around with scarves and gloves (well,
if you come from the coast it's pretty fresh here). Dry season is
December to March.
Tourist Information Centers (Punto Información Turística, PIT) can
usually be found in the city's main square. They are recognizable by a
sign with a red I.
There are hardly any public toilets (“baño”)
outside of museums or bus stations. You use a nearby café or similar.
You should bring your own paper to be on the safe side.
The power
supply is 120 volts at 60 hertz. The American plugs (type A and B) are
common.
Most cities were laid out with streets running at right
angles to each other. The streets running north-south are usually
numbered as Carreras. Abbreviated as: Cra, Cr or K. Streets running
east-west are numbered as Calles, short Cll, Cl or C (the Spanish “C/”
is not used). The principle is often broken, be it because of landscape
conditions or other reasons. There are therefore also diagonals or
transversals. Important main streets often have names as Avenida. Street
names are (also) common only in Cartagena and Medellín.
A typical
address such as “Calle 8 № 12-40” indicates a house on Calle 8, 40
meters from the corner of Carretera 12. So it's not really a house
number. The № is increasingly being replaced by #.
post
The
post until 2006 as Adpostal was privatized under the name 4-72. 6-digit
postcodes were introduced (search). When sending international parcels,
ID is required.
cellphone and internet
In 2010-8, the Plan
Vive Digital led to a massive expansion of the Internet, especially in
small towns and rural regions. WLAN access can often be found in the
local library, cultural center or city park.
The largest mobile
operator is Claro, a subsidiary of Mexico's América Móvil. Movistar
belongs to the Spanish Telefónica, via whose network you can also make
calls with Virgin Mobile. Another company is Tigo. These usually have
their branches in shopping malls. SIM cards (“prepago”) are available
for COP$ 5,000. In 2022, data packages for 2GB usually cost COP$ 10,000,
but have comparatively short terms of 7, 10 or 15 days, depending on the
operator.
Calls within a provider's network are cheaper than
between operators. For international calls, the first two offer
(different) Latin American country packages in which a cheaper tariff
applies. For calls to Europe, the price per minute is just under €2.
You see minutos advertised at kiosks or as street vendors. The
corresponding gentlemen rent telephones in order to make calls into a
certain network cheaper than between operators.
Colombia is located in northwestern South America and is the only
South American country that borders both the Atlantic (1626 km
coastline) and the Pacific Ocean (1448 km). In the south-west Colombia
borders on the neighboring countries of Ecuador (590 km border line) and
Peru (1626 km), in the south-east on Brazil (1645 km), in the north-east
on Venezuela (2050 km) and in the north-west on Panama (225 kilometers).
The total length of the Colombian land border is 6136 kilometers.
The earth's equator runs through Colombia (see also States, islands
and cities on the equator).
Natural structure
Colombia is
divided into six different metropolitan areas.
The western half of
Colombia is dominated by the Andes, which are divided into three major
mountain ranges: the Western, Central and Eastern Cordilleras. Between
the mountain ranges, the large, partially navigable rivers Cauca and
Magdalena flow into the Caribbean Sea. Western Colombia drains into the
Caribbean via the Atrato and into the Pacific via the San Juan and Baudó
rivers. The high mountains are home to the partly active volcanoes
Galeras (4276 m), Nevado del Huila (5364 m), Nevado del Ruiz (5321 m),
Puracé, Nevado del Tolima (5215 m) and Nevado de Santa Isabel (4965 m).
In northern Colombia, on the Caribbean coast, rises the 5775 m high
Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, the highest coastal mountain range on
earth and at the same time the highest elevation in Colombia. The
highest peaks of the isolated pyramid-shaped massif are Pico Cristóbal
Colón and Pico Simón Bolívar, both 5775 m high.
In terms of
climate, the Andean region has the typical altitude gradation of
tropical high mountains as described by Alexander von Humboldt.
Caribbean coastal lowlands
The Caribbean coastal lowlands of Colombia
are largely flat and, apart from the coastal strip, relatively sparsely
populated. Large parts of the lowlands are characterized by large areas
of marshland, which make it difficult to open up traffic. The most
famous islands in the Atlantic are the archipelago of San Andrés and
Providencia (770 km northwest of Colombia), with the islands of San
Andrés, Providencia, Santa Catalina, Roncador, Quitasueño, Serrana and
Serranilla. The partly uninhabited islands of Roncador, Quitasueño and
Serrana were among the US's foreign possessions until the 1980s, since a
return agreement signed in 1972 was not ratified by the US Senate. In
front of the Caribbean coast are the island of Fuerte and the
archipelagos of San Bernardo and del Rosario.
Pacific coastal
lowlands
Apart from a few port cities, the Pacific coastal lowlands
are largely uninhabited, which can be attributed in particular to the
constantly hot and humid climatic conditions. Up to 10,000 mm of
precipitation can fall per year. The region is largely covered with
tropical rain forest that is difficult to access and is characterized by
a diverse flora and fauna. The only traffic routes are the natural
waterways, especially the Río Atrato, which drains towards the
Caribbean. In the Pacific are the islands of Malpelo (west of
Buenaventura), Gorgona, an old prison colony, and Gorgonilla.
Amazonia and Orinocia
The eastern half of Colombia is characterized
by densely forested plains, through which flow the Putumayo, Yapura,
Meta and Guaviare rivers, which flow into either the Orinoco or the
Amazon, and can be divided into two major areas, the distinguishing
feature of which is primarily the direction of flow of the rivers is.
The area with the rivers draining towards the Orinoco is called
Orinocia. It is also known in Colombia as Llanos Orientales. The area is
mostly flat and the only mountain range is the Serranía de la Macarena,
which can be assigned to the Andean region in terms of natural area, but
is much older than the Andean cordillera, which is documented by its
north-west-southeast orientation. The Llanos Orientales are covered by a
wet savannah, with the heavy rainfall of the rainy season often making
the region's few roads impassable. Apart from the eastern foot of the
Andes, Colombian Orinocia is largely uninhabited.
The southeast
quarter of Colombia includes the Colombian part of Amazonia. This region
is almost entirely covered by dense rainforest, is characterized by
extremely high biodiversity and, with the exception of a number of
indigenous population groups, is sparsely populated.
The great
lakes of Colombia extend to the Andes. Some are: Laguna de Guatavita,
Laguna de Tota, Laguna de Iguaque and Laguna de La Cocha.
Colombia's largest cities are the capital Bogotá, Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, Cartagena de Indias, Ibagué, Manizales, Pereira, Santa Marta, Cúcuta and Bucaramanga.
In terms of biodiversity, Colombia ranks second in South America: ten
percent of the world's species are represented on Colombian soil. With
an enormously high biodiversity and due to the large number of endemic
species, genera and families as well as diverse ecosystems, Colombia is
one of the megadiverse countries on earth and, with the
Tumbes-Chocó-Magdalena ecoregion on the western slopes of the Andes
(reaching to Costa Rica), is home to the most species-rich one of five
global centers of megadiversity. Due to the threat to nature, this
region is one of the international hotspots of diversity.
53.2
million hectares of Colombia are covered with natural forests; 21.6
million ha with other vegetation types of savanna, dry and wet areas;
1.1 million with bodies of water, snow-capped mountains, urban
settlements, at least 38.4 million hectares of the surface of Colombia
are cultivated for agriculture or developed. The most important
ecosystems in Colombia are the humid tropical forests (378,000 km²), the
savannah plains (105,000 km²), floodplain and peat forests (95,000 km²),
the Andean forest (45,000 km²) and the coppice and Amazon forests
(36,000 km²).
The country's greatest natural wealth is its flora.
In total, Colombia has between 45,000 and 55,000 plant species,
including 3,500 orchid species alone, i.e. 15% of all orchid species in
the world. The animal kingdom is also very diverse with a total of 2890
land vertebrate species: 1721 bird species represent 20% of all species
occurring worldwide and 358 species of mammals represent seven percent
of the species occurring worldwide. The number of 819 amphibian species
is the second largest in the world after Brazil.
Colombia has 2.1
billion m³ of water resources annually, derived from wetlands, swamps,
lagoons, rivers and other flowing waters that feed groundwater.
Heterogeneous soil conditions, different altitudes and climatic zones,
which include the transition and contact between the Amazon and the
Andes, result in a high level of biodiversity with a high number of
endemic species. Colombia is one of the countries with the greatest
biodiversity per territorial unit in the world: With only 0.7% share of
the global mainland mass, the country has ten percent of all animal and
plant species on the planet on its territory. Although Colombia has been
promoting the protection of its natural resources since the 1970s, in
addition to natural environmental disasters (often caused either by
extreme dry or rainy seasons), dynamic social and economic growth and
military conflicts in recent decades have caused considerable
environmental damage .
With the constitution of 1991, the country
explicitly committed itself to sustainable development; about 60
constitutional articles relate directly or indirectly to the
environment. Law 99 of 1993, which created a Ministry of the Environment
as part of the National Environmental System (Sistema Nacional
Ambiental, SINA for short), forms the normative framework for the design
of these requirements. In addition to the ministry, the SINA also
includes the regional development authorities responsible for managing
natural resources and their sustainable development, urban environmental
planning authorities and systems such as the DAMA in Bogotá and the
Ecofondo, the association of all environmental NGOs. State environmental
plans should contribute to the achievement of the ambitious goals.
However, the regional development authorities are accused of, among
other things, excessive operating costs, a lack of investment in
environmental programs and the abandonment of reforested areas. These
and other deficiencies are therefore to be eliminated by means of a
far-reaching environmental sector reform. A legislative proposal for
this was already presented in March 2003; in addition, the Ministry of
the Environment was merged into the Ministerio de Ambiente, Vivienda y
Desarollo Territorial in April 2003. Efforts are currently being made to
restructure the national park administration (UAESPNN - Unidad
Administrativa Especial del Sistema de Parques), which has been in
existence for decades.
Backsliding was often reported during
Uribe's presidency, especially as environmental and natural degradation
as a result of the armed conflict increased year by year.
With
the support of EMPA Dübendorf, Colombia became a pioneer in the
recycling of e-waste in South America from 2008. Up until 2018,
successive state regulations to expand formal recycling followed,
without entrepreneurs objecting. The informal collection sector is
difficult to reduce because drug dealers used it to launder money.
Biosphere reserves
UNESCO declared a total of five areas in
Colombia to be biosphere reserves:
Parque Nacional Natural El Tuparro
(since 1979) Area in ha: 548,000
Nudo de los Pastos (since 1979) Area
in ha: 175,300
Parque Nacional Natural Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta
(since 1979) Area in ha: 2,115,800
Santuario de fauna y flora Ciénaga
Grande de Santa Marta (since 2000) Area in ha: 493,150
Parque
Nacional Natural Old Providence (since 2000) Area in ha: 5348
Pollution
About 25% of Colombia's wetlands have disappeared in recent
decades, mostly as a result of mining activities, deforestation and
river pollution.
The government is planning a revival of the gold
and copper markets with its National Development Plan 2018-2022. In
addition, 161 new oil drilling sites are planned for 2022, four times
more than the 46 existing sites in 2018. Fracking will be legalized in
2019.
Air pollution causes at least 17,500 deaths a year in
Colombia, according to the government. According to Greenpeace data,
Colombia is the fifth most polluted country in Latin America (after
Mexico, Chile, Peru and Brazil).
Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, indigenous advanced cultures existed in what is now Colombia, which traded with one another and in particular mastered the art of goldsmithing at the highest level. BC to around 1600 processed clay into figures and objects. Due to the diverse ecological and landscape conditions, a unified state structure never developed in pre-colonial Colombia, as represented by the Inca Empire in Peru. Among the many indigenous peoples who inhabited Colombia, the most notable are: the Muisca, who lived on the high plateaus of the Eastern Cordillera; the Tairona, who built one of the earliest cities on the South American continent with the so-called Ciudad Perdida in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta; the Sinú, who populated the area along the river of the same name; the Quimbaya in the area of today's coffee zone on the west slope of the central cordillera; and last but not least the mysterious cultures of San Agustín with their stone sculptures and Tierradentro with their painted burial chambers, which reached their heyday long before the arrival of the Spaniards.
Colombia was discovered for Europe in 1499 by Alonso de Ojeda and
Amerigo Vespucci. Christopher Columbus, on the other hand, in whose
honor the country "Colombia" was named, never set foot in the country.
The first two discoverers of Colombia first came to the "La Guajira"
peninsula, which they initially gave the name "Isla de Coquivacoa",
believing it was an island. In 1508, Vasco Núñez de Balboa led an
expedition to the Urabá Gulf area. In 1510, the city of Santa María la
Antigua del Darién became the first stable settlement on the continent.
Other parts of the country were later u. a. discovered, explored and
often plundered by Rodrigo de Bastidas and Juan de la Cosa. Early
colonial bases were Santa Marta (est. 1525) and Cartagena de Indias
(est. 1533) on Colombia's Caribbean coast.
Lured by gold and
emeralds, the conquistadors occupied the country. Gonzalo Jiménez de
Quesada invaded the Andes in 1537, subjugated the Chibcha and founded
Santa Fe de Bogotá in 1538. Coming from the south, from today's Ecuador,
Sebastián de Belalcázar conquered southern Colombia. Coming from the
east, the Ulm merchant Nikolaus Federmann reached Bogotá in 1539 to
advance the colonization of the country on behalf of the people of Wels.
The Spaniards built settlements that replaced the former Indian trading
centers, such as Santa Fé de Bogotá (est. 1538) and Tunja (est. 1539).
Because of its central importance to the Spanish possessions in
northern South America, in 1547 Colombia was elevated to its own
province "New Granada" within the Viceroyalty of Peru, and Bogotá became
the seat of a Real Audiencia. Cartagena de Indias rose to prominence as
a port of call for navies from Spain, and during the colonial era became
one of the most important - and best-protected - ports in the new world.
The country's wealth led to pirate attacks in 1544, 1560 and 1586, e.g.
by Francis Drake, on Cartagena. In the 17th century, 80 percent of the
world's gold production came from Colombia. Indians worked the gold
mines, many of whom died from weakness and diseases brought by the
Europeans. After that, mostly African slaves took over the work, which
could be bought in the port of Cartagena.
In 1717 the north of
South America (today's Colombia, Panama, Venezuela and Ecuador) was
constituted as the Viceroyalty of New Granada with Bogotá as its
capital. In 1741, Cartagena was attacked by an English armada of 186
warships and defended by Spanish troops under Don Blas de Lezo.
The conflict that led to independence from Spain took place in
Colombia between 1810 and 1819. It began when, on July 20, 1810, a group
of Creoles went to the Spaniard José González Llorente in Bogotá,
ostensibly to borrow a flower vase from him. When Llorente refused, a
brawl (known as "el grito") ensued. The term "El Florero de Llorente"
("the flower vase of Llorente") is also common.
The increasing
development of a self-confident upper class in the colonies in
combination with the weakening of Spain at the time of Napoleon favored
the establishment of an independence movement. After the successful
struggle for independence in Venezuela, Simón Bolívar united the two
countries after numerous battles (e.g. Pantano de Vargas, Puente de
Boyacá) to form independent Greater Colombia in 1819. Ecuador then also
joined the newly founded state in 1825.
In 1821 Simon Bolivar was
elected President. During his tenure, he tried unsuccessfully to push
through the total abolition of slavery. The power of the big landowners
was too great to abolish slavery by law. Only in the 1850s did the large
landowners allow slavery to be abolished. The motive, however, was that
a "free" worker employed at a very low wage was permanently cheaper.
In 1830, after Bolívar's death, the federation disintegrated, partly
because Bolívar's attempts to win Peru and Bolivia had failed. Ecuador
and Venezuela declared their independence. Panama and Colombia formed
New Granada. In addition, there were civil war-like political conflicts
between liberals and conservatives. The liberals wanted a federal state
and recruited themselves from the bourgeoisie of the commercial cities.
The Conservatives wanted a strong central government and came from the
class of large landowners. In 1863, the Liberals passed a constitution
and named the federal state the United States of Colombia. In 1886, the
conservatives enacted a constitution in which Colombia again formed a
central state, today's "Republic of Colombia". Colombia was the first
democracy in Latin America and the second in America after the United
States.
Only in 1886 was it possible to unite Colombia in a
centralized republic. This republic was put to the test again in 1898
when the ongoing internal conflicts erupted in the "War of a Thousand
Days". Between 1899 and 1902 the opposition Liberals fought the
conservative central government without either side being able to
achieve a clear victory. The devastating conflict (over 100,000 dead)
was finally defused by a peace treaty intended to secure future
government participation for the Liberals. Nevertheless, the
"conservative hegemony" (since 1886) continued until 1930. Much more
serious than the material losses of the war, however, were its foreign
policy aftermath. In 1903, for example, the USA exploited Colombia's
weakness to assert its geostrategic and economic interests in Central
America. For US President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1908), building a
canal across the Isthmus of Panama was a military imperative. A
secession was also favored by the fact that the isthmus was poorly
integrated into the central Colombian state and the merchant oligarchy
based there felt patronized and ignored by Bogotá. The Colombian Senate
had previously rejected the USA's forced construction of the Panama
Canal, citing an imminent loss of sovereignty, whereupon the United
States forced the separation and subsequent constitution of the Isthmus
Department as an independent and independent state through military
intervention in agreement with the Panamanian separation movement.
Colombia had emerged from the "Thousand Days War" so weak that it had to
reluctantly accept Panama's secession, made possible by military
intervention by the USA.
In the first half of the 20th century,
Colombia experienced an economic heyday. By the 1920s, coffee accounted
for up to 90 percent of Colombia's exports, enabling the country to
invest in expanding transportation infrastructure and strengthening
state institutions. The dark side of this boom was increasing social
tensions between a wealthy oligarchy and an impoverished rural
population. By 1929, the economy was thriving at unprecedented annual
growth rates. After “Black Friday” in 1929, there was a crisis and in
1930 there was a change of government. The Liberals brought land reform
and industrialization to the country. The assassination of left-wing
populist presidential candidate Jorge Eliécer Gaitán on April 9, 1948 in
Bogotá was the spark that caused the powder keg to explode. The civil
war (La Violencia) that had been raging in rural areas between liberals
and conservatives since 1946 was now carried into the cities.
Between 1948 and 1953, the so-called La Violencia (literally "The
Violence") entered its toughest phase. Conservative President Mariano
Ospina Pérez (1946–50) wanted the Liberals to participate in the
government and opted for moderation. Pérez' successor, Laureano Gómez,
who was also conservative, took a radical course from 1950 onwards.
Although he had to be temporarily replaced by Roberto Urdaneta due to
his poor health, Gómez remained the dominant man in the background until
1953. During his almost three-year reign, around 80,000 people lost
their lives in the political conflict. La Violencia, which lasted until
around 1963, claimed more than 200,000 civilian lives. After the
formation of the so-called “National Front” (1958), peace did not yet
come, despite a comprehensive amnesty under President Alberto Lleras
Camargo (1958–62). The pact within the elite between the leaders of the
Conservatives (group around Laureano Gómez) and the Liberals (group
around Alberto Lleras) resulted in a parity system of government in
which both traditional parties took turns in power every four years; all
offices in the state administration were also filled equally according
to party affiliation. The system, which formally existed until 1974 but
whose effects could still be felt into the 1980s, reinforced the
existing political exclusivism. Left-wing political actors in particular
(FARC, ELN, M-19, Quintín Lame, EPL, etc.) therefore saw themselves
challenged to use violence to create a truly participatory political
system. Of the guerrilla groups that emerged during the 1960s and 1980s,
however, only the FARC, which emerged from the liberal peasant
self-defense groups (repúblicas independientes), had direct roots in the
violencia period.
After the short interlude of a military
dictatorship under Gustavo Rojas Pinilla (1953–1957), supported by part
of the political elite and which was atypical for Colombia, the
traditional civilian “pseudo-democratic rule” continued. However, no
comprehensive social reforms were carried out. Certain structural
features of the political system, such as the strong dominance of the
executive or the exclusion of "radical" political parties, became
entrenched over time. The formally oldest democracy in South America
thus took on the character of a cartel-like consociational democracy.
The constitutional reform adopted by referendum (on December 10,
1957) enshrined the right to vote and stand for women, a right already
granted in Acto Legislativo Número 3 of August 25, 1954 by the
Constituent Assembly under the government of General Rojas Pinilla, but
which after its fall, like all resolutions of Congress, was declared
null and void; but Decree 247 of 1957 by the military junta also called
on women to take part in the referendum. Women first went to the polls
in 1957.
From 1974: Liberal election victory, drug mafia and
"left against right"
After the liberal electoral victories of Alfonso
López Michelsen (1974-1978) and Julio César Turbay Ayala (1978-1982),
corruption and mismanagement increased. The dependence of the police and
judiciary on political parties and the government favored the erosion of
the rule of law and the suppression of the opposition. Paramilitary
groups occupied parts of the country on behalf of the military and large
landowners.
The drug mafia, which was gaining economic power at
the same time, was threatened by US intervention in the local drug war
in the early 1980s. After the dismantling of the large networks of the
Cali cartel and the Medellín cartel in the drug war, small,
decentralized networks (as of 2008) that sell the drugs[48] mostly in
the USA gained in importance.
Armed conflict in Colombia has been
going on for decades. After another wave of violence and terror,
President Álvaro Uribe Vélez declared a 90-day state of emergency on
August 12, 2002. The demobilization of the paramilitary organizations
begun by Uribe in 2003 threatened to fail. The demobilization process
sparked controversy over the impunity of those who committed serious
crimes. In addition, there is criticism that drug dealers who want to
avoid extradition to the USA officially pretend to be former
paramilitaries and thus benefit from amnesty.
Without income from
the drug trade, the non-state armed actors in Colombia would not have
been able to finance themselves. Successful action by the industrialized
countries against illegal drug imports would therefore harm the
insurgents. In 2007, the area under coca cultivation reached about
100,000 hectares. However, it decreased in size over the next few years,
as did the area of fields destroyed by herbicides, particularly aerial
spraying of glyphosate. In November 2011, Colombian President Juan
Manuel Santos considered limited legalization of cocaine and marijuana
as a possible way to help resolve the military standoff in Colombia, a
move that the US fiercely opposed. In 2014, according to various
estimates, the area under cultivation increased again by 20 to 39
percent to 60,000 to 70,000 hectares. In 2015, President Santos decided
to stop chemically destroying coca plants because of the health
consequences. The US embassy has since given up its opposition.
Observers also consider the president's decision to be a peace gesture
towards the FARC.
The country is shaped by decades of armed conflict. On June 22, 2016,
both sides agreed on a final ceasefire. Both sides had already agreed on
transitional justice, agricultural development programs in the rebel
strongholds and future political participation of the guerrillas. On
September 26, the FARC and the government signed the peace treaty. A
(non-binding) referendum was held on October 2, in which, contrary to
forecasts, the voters rejected the peace treaty with just over 50
percent of the votes. Contrary to previous announcements, both sides
gave hope that they would stick to the ceasefire. One problem seemed to
be how long the FARC could be sustained financially without having to
resume criminal activity. The rejection came for the following reasons:
60 percent of those entitled to vote did not take part in the vote.
Obviously, among the 40 percent who participated, there were many people
with strong motives for voting yes or no. One motive for the rejection,
especially among supporters of the conservative party, was the
assumption that the FARC was already so weakened after heavy military
defeats that they could now be dealt the ultimate devastating blow. A
leader of the No movement admitted after the plebiscite that it had
systematically instilled fear in the middle and upper classes by raising
the threat of impunity for FARC members. In the lower classes, the lie
was spread that after a peace agreement was concluded, subsidies would
have to be raised by the people. With the agreement running to almost
300 pages, many voters relied on the messages from their leaders. It was
not until President Juan Manuel Santos was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize
that the peace process in Colombia was perceived differently and
students and young people were mobilized in an unprecedented way. In
this respect, the Nobel Prize acted like a "salvavidas" (lifebelt) for
Santos.
In November 2016, a new peace treaty with FARC
concessions was signed in Havana, which was approved unanimously by both
chambers of Congress on November 30, 2016. The opponents had boycotted
the vote and the bill was no longer submitted to the people for a vote.
In order to secure the peace process, the United Nations set a
political d. H. purely civilian peacekeeping mission called the UN
Mission in Colombia. Their goal is to monitor the peace agreement, the
ceasefire and the disarmament of the FARC guerrillas. In July 2017, the
UN Security Council decided to carry out a second political mission in
Colombia. The "verification mission" beginning in September 2017 aims to
check the reintegration of the FARC rebels and the reconstruction of
civilian institutions in affected areas. Due to a lack of
infrastructure, the state did not succeed in gaining complete control
over all former FARC areas. The power vacuum that emerged in these
outlying areas was filled by armed groups, including paramilitary
groups, criminal drug trafficking organizations and also renegade FARC
guerrillas.
In 2018, Colombia was the country with the highest
number of internally displaced persons in the world due to guerrilla
warfare. Added to this was the burden of refugees from Venezuela during
the local supply crisis. Parts of Colombia are still affected by active
landmines operated by the FARC, drug cartels and militias, causing mine
casualties, particularly among the rural population.
On February
7, 2017, talks between the government and the second-largest rebel
organization, ELN, began in Ecuador with the aim of disarmament.
However, the peace talks quickly ended under right-wing President Ivan
Duque. They only resumed in 2022 with the election of left-wing
President Gustavo Petro.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in
Colombia, coca cultivation was often the last opportunity for farmers in
rural areas to earn money. In 2021, for example, the area under
cultivation for the production of cocaine increased by 43 percent.
According to UN experts, as of 2022, more cocaine will be produced in
Colombia than at any time in the country's history.
In 1989, the Convention on Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in
Independent Countries was adopted as part of the Constitution. Between
1986 and 1990, the government recognized more than 200,000 km² of
rainforest in the Amazon region as collective indigenous territories
(resguardos). In addition, a separate commission for Indian affairs and
one for environmental affairs was set up.
From 1986, Martín von
Hildebrand was chairman of the indigenous authority and advisor to
President Virgilio Barco Vargas. He created a network of
non-governmental organizations, a foundation called Fundación Gaia
Amazonas. He launched the COAMA program, which seeks new ways of
environmental protection in cooperation with indigenous groups. The
transnational initiative CANOA is now active in Colombia, Brazil and
Venezuela.
Colombia has been a democratically constituted republic since 1886
with a politically strong position of the president based on the US
model. The (official) characterization of Colombia as a democracy is
primarily based on formal criteria such as regular elections and a
superficial institutional stability. In terms of quality, however,
Colombian democracy has deficits.
The President is directly
elected by the people for a four-year term, he cannot stand for
re-election. A vice president helps him with official business. The
president can dissolve parliament and force new elections.
As a
presidential republic, Colombia is constitutionally divided into
executive, legislative and judiciary branches. The parliament consists
of two chambers, called the Congress, and consists of the House of
Representatives (Cámara de Representantes) with 166 seats and the Senate
(Senado), representing the 32 regions, with 102 seats. The current
constitution was passed after a referendum on July 5, 1991 and is
considered one of the most progressive – and comprehensive – in the
world. Almost all offices, from president to deputy, are directly
elected by the people. Anyone over the age of 18 is considered an adult,
and only members of the army and convicts are not allowed to vote. The
President of the Senate and the members of the Senate and Congress are
elected to four-year terms.
Although the executive is formally
subject to the control of the judiciary (Corte Suprema, Corte
Constitucional, Consejo de Estado, Consejo Superior de la Judicatura) of
the legislature and even an ombudsman (Defensor del Pueblo), in
political practice the president has a strong preponderance to observe.
The Congress, characterized by clientelism and the assertion of
particular interests, has lost more and more of its control function in
recent decades.
The President's constitutional veto power over
Parliament is unusually strong compared to other systems of government
in the hemisphere. The traditional elites still determine the
distribution of goods and the exercise of political power. The
cartel-like consociational democracy that emerged during the Frente
Nacional (1958–62) has thus only undergone superficial changes.
Qualitative democracy criteria such as participation and pluralism, on
the other hand, have only been implemented to a limited extent. The
policy of the current government, which is based on massive
militarization (seguridad democráctica), coupled with the increased
powers of the executive (Estado comunitario) are diametrically opposed
to the development of a strong civil society and a stable constitutional
state. International organizations such as Amnesty International
therefore primarily criticize the negative human and civil rights record
of the current government.
Colombia is a member of the
Organization of American States (OAS), the Community of Latin American
and Caribbean States (CELAC) and the Andean Community (CAN) and was a
member of the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) between 2008 and
2018. Within the framework of the CAN, Colombia is trying to conclude an
association agreement with the EU. Colombia is also a member of the
World Bank, the WTO, the IDB and IMF, the G3 and the United Nations.
Accession negotiations to Mercosur are being conducted. In recent
months, Colombia has made initial efforts to reach a free trade
agreement with the Central American states of El Salvador, Guatemala and
Honduras. Colombia has concluded a bilateral free trade agreement with
the USA, which has yet to be ratified by the North American parliament
in June 2007. Colombia maintains industrial relations with the OECD. It
joined the OECD on April 28, 2020.
The national flag of Colombia
bears the "Bolivarian" colors of yellow, blue and red. The national coat
of arms shows the Isthmus of Panama, the condor as a heraldic animal and
the motto "Freedom and Order". The Colombian national anthem entitled "O
immortal glory" was composed at the end of the 18th and the beginning of
the 19th century. It was written by Rafael Núñez and set to music by the
Italian Oreste Sindici. It became the country's official anthem in 1928.
On official occasions only the first verse is sung. A folk song from the
south of the country "La Guaneña" is generally regarded as Colombia's
first anthem.