The Republic of the Marshall Islands (march. Aolepān Aorōkin
M̧ajeļ) is a Pacific state in Micronesia associated with the United
States. It borders in the west and southwest with the waters of the
Federated States of Micronesia, in the south with the waters of
Kiribati, and in the remaining parts - with the neutral waters of
the Pacific Ocean. The coastal strip is 370.4 km long. The Republic
of Marshall Islands is located on 29 atolls and 5 islands of the
Marshall Islands archipelago, consisting of Ralik and Ratak chains.
Total land area - 181.3 km²; the territory occupied by the lagoons -
11 673 km². The population of the Marshall Islands is 57,045.
(November 2018, United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs: Population Division). The capital is the city of Majuro.
The first island seen by Europeans was the Bocac Atoll,
discovered by the Spanish navigator Alonso de Salazar in 1526.
Subsequently, the Marshall Islands alternately became the territory
of various colonial powers: in 1886 - Germany, in 1914 - Japan,
which continued to rule the islands after the First World War
already under the mandate of the League of Nations, in 1947 - were
included in the UN Trusteeship under the control of the United
States. As a public entity, the Marshall Islands arose in 1983 as a
result of the division of the UN Pacific Trust Territory. Since
1986, the Islands have been in “free association” with the United
States. Marshall Islands is a member of the United Nations, the
Pacific Community and the Pacific Islands Forum.
The Marshall Islands are named after British Captain John Marshall (also known as William Marshall), who, along with fellow Captain Thomas Gilbert, after whom the neighboring Gilbert Islands are named, explored the archipelago in 1788 while transporting prisoners to New South Wales.
The Micronesian state of the Marshall Islands is a cluster of atolls
and islands located in the Pacific Ocean just north of the equator. The
capital of the country, the city of Majuro, is located 3438 km west of
the city of Honolulu, the capital of the US state of Hawaii, 3701 km
southeast of Tokyo, the capital of Japan, and 3241 km southeast of the
city of Saipan, the capital of the Northern Marianas. Islands. The
nearest archipelagos are the Caroline Islands, which belong to the
Federated States of Micronesia and are located southwest of the Marshall
Islands, and the Gilbert Islands, which lie to the southeast and belong
to the Republic of Kiribati.
The land area of the Marshall
Islands is only 181.3 km², while the area of the territory occupied
by lagoons is 11,673 km². The country is located on 29 atolls and 5
outlying islands, which are divided into two groups: 18 islands in the
Ralik chain (translated from the Marshallese language "sunset") and 16
islands in the Ratak (or Radak; translated from the Marshallese language
"sunrise") chain . Both chains are about 250 km apart and stretch from
northwest to southeast for about 1200 km. The most important islands are
the atolls of Kwajalein and Majuro. The largest island of the Republic
of the Marshall Islands, Kwajalein, is also an atoll with the largest
lagoon in the world. Despite the fact that its land area is only 16.32
km² (or 6.3 sq. miles), the area of \u200b\u200bthe lagoon is 2174 km²
(or 839.3 sq. miles). All the islands are low-lying, and the atolls
consist of a large number of motu, the total number of which in the
country exceeds 1100. The highest point of the country, which reaches
only 10 m, is located on the Likiep Atoll.
The northernmost
island of the Republic of the Marshall Islands is the island of Bokak
(or Taongi) in the Ratak chain: it is located 280 km northwest of the
disputed Wake Atoll, now under US administration. The southernmost
island of the Marshall Islands is Ebon Atoll, the westernmost is Ujelang
(they are both located in the Ralik chain), and the easternmost is Knox
in the Ratak chain.
Twenty-nine of the thirty-four islands of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands are atolls (the rest of the islands are raised atolls).
According to the theory of Charles Darwin, the formation of atolls
occurred as a result of the subsidence of volcanic islands, near the
surface of which corals gradually grew. A fringing reef was formed, and
subsequently a barrier reef, which was gradually built up by corals. As
a result, the land of the atoll arose. Coral and algae growth was most
active in the areas of the reef facing the ocean, as a result, these
outer edges of the reef kept pace with the subsidence of the volcanic
island. The inner regions of the island, on the contrary, were submerged
under water. Subsequently, shallow lagoons formed in these places.
Sand gradually accumulated on the surface of the reefs, which was
formed under the influence of waves and currents, especially during
strong tides. In the tidal zone of the beach, coastal rock was formed,
an outer inclined layer of stones. As a result, land plants had a
support on which they could grow. On the island, vegetation resistant to
high salt content in the soil was formed, which with its roots held
together various sedimentary rocks and prevented water and wind erosion.
This is how the sand islands, or motu, of the atoll were formed.
A raised atoll is a raised volcanic island resulting from the uplift of
a coral platform, or macatea, that surrounds the volcanic plateau at the
center of the island.
Minerals, the development of which could be
carried out on an industrial scale, are absent on the surface and in the
depths of the Marshall Islands. However, in the course of preliminary
studies, phosphorites were found on some islands, and accumulations of
ferromanganese nodules, as well as cobalt, were found within the
territorial waters of the country. However, no development is currently
underway.
A distinctive feature of the regional climate of the Marshall Islands
is the change in climatic conditions from north to south, including an
increase in precipitation in this direction. In the northern islands of
the country, the climate is tropical, semi-arid. For example, on the
northernmost atoll of the Marshall Islands, Bocaca, it is practically
semi-desert, although the amount of precipitation falling on it is close
to that of the western prairies of the United States. This is due to
several factors: soil porosity, salt fog and saline groundwater.
Rainfall in the Marshall Islands increases as you move south and reaches
its maximum on Ebon Atoll, the country's southernmost island located in
the equatorial belt.
Another important climatic feature of the
local climate is the location of the Marshall Islands in the zone of
northeast trade winds. During most of the year, the islands are
dominated by winds blowing from the northeast. They are characterized by
high humidity. All but the northernmost islands experience frequent
showers.
Tropical storms and hurricanes, or typhoons, are
typical, though rare, of the archipelago, during which there is heavy
rainfall, strong winds that break trees and destroy homes, and high
waves that threaten to wash away low-lying islets. Droughts happen. The
most common cause of climate change is El Niño.
Monthly rainfall
in the Marshall Islands is about 300-380 mm. On the northern islands of
the country, from 1000 to 1750 mm of precipitation falls annually, on
the southern - 3000-4300 mm. On the northern islands, the heaviest rains
occur from September to November, while on the southern islands they
fall all year round.
The temperature regime in the archipelago
remains constant throughout the year. The difference between the coldest
and warmest month is 1-2°C. The lowest nighttime temperatures are
usually 2-4°C above the lowest daytime temperature. The average annual
temperature in the Marshall Islands is 27.8°C.
The soils of the Marshall Islands are highly alkaline, of coral
origin (mostly white or pink coral sand), and very poor. Usually they
are porous, which is why they retain moisture very poorly. Also, local
soils contain very little organic and mineral matter, with the exception
of calcium.
Permanent bodies of fresh water are a rarity in the
Marshall Islands. Running water on the islands is completely absent;
small streams of water are formed only after heavy rains. Groundwater is
found on almost all atolls, except for the northernmost ones, where the
climate is the most arid. Seeping through the porous soil, rainwater
forms a lens of slightly brackish water. You can get to it by digging a
well. Due to the negligible water inflow into these lenses and the
prolonged tidal fluctuations, the lenses are relatively thin, as is the
zone of mixing of fresh and sea water. On some atolls of the country,
where the climate is the most humid, there are small, mostly brackish,
ponds, which were formed as a result of the isolation of a separate
section of the lagoon and the constant mixing of lagoon salt water with
fresh rainwater. One of the freshwater bodies of water, Lake Lieb exists
on the island of the same name in the Ralik chain.
Only a few uninhabited islands of the archipelago have preserved
forests in which vegetation typical of atolls grows. On the rest of the
island ecosystems have undergone significant changes under the influence
of the anthropogenic factor: most of the local flora was destroyed, and
plantations of coconut palm and breadfruit were planted instead of
indigenous plants. Other atolls suffered from military operations: from
1946 to the 1960s, Americans tested nuclear weapons on Bikini and
Enewetok. In 1954, the United States, codenamed Bravo, tested its first
hydrogen bomb on Bikini Atoll. The explosion was 1000 times more
powerful than the explosion in Hiroshima, and radioactive fallout from
it fell on neighboring islands. Nuclear tests have caused enormous
damage to the ecosystems of the islands.
In recent years, local
flora and fauna have been threatened by rising sea levels caused by
global warming. It leads to groundwater pollution, land retreat in front
of the ocean.
The Marshall Islands are home to 80 plant species,
of which one species is endemic to the archipelago and two to
Micronesia. The most common species is the coconut palm, which covers
approximately 60% of the archipelago's land mass. This plant plays a key
role in the life of the islanders: on the one hand, it is a source of
wood, on the other hand, it forms the basis of the diet of the
Marshallese. From the oily endosperm of the nuts, copra is produced,
which is the main export of the country. Other important plants for the
locals include pandanus, breadfruit, taro and bananas. Pisonia and
tourneforcia mainly grow in the island forests. There are mangroves.
The most important representatives of the local fauna are seabirds.
On many northern islands, Bikar, Bokak, Bikini, green turtles (lat.
Chelonia mydas) lay their eggs, but the previously widespread hawksbill
sea turtle (lat. Eretmochelys imbricata) has become rare in local
waters. Of the terrestrial reptiles on the islands, there are 4 species
of skink lizards and an Indian monitor lizard. Many of the Marshall
Islands are large bird colonies where seabirds nest (106 bird species in
total). The only terrestrial birds in the country are the Pacific
fruit-eating pigeon (lat. Ducula oceanica) and the purple-capped spotted
pigeon (lat. Ptilinopus porphyraceus), now extinct on most of the
islands. All nine mammal species have been introduced to the Marshall
Islands.
The coastal waters of the islands are very rich in fish
(about 250 species) and corals (about 146 species).
There are no
nature reserves or protected areas in the country.
Very little is known about the early history of the Marshall Islands.
Presumably, the islands were inhabited about 2000 years ago by
immigrants from Southeast Asia.
The first island seen by
Europeans was Bocaq Atoll, discovered by the Spanish navigator Alonso de
Salazar in 1526. However, the archipelago remained unnamed until 1788,
when the islands were rediscovered by the British captain John Marshall,
after whom they were named. Subsequently, ships of many states sailed
past the Marshall Islands, but none of them made territorial claims for
the purpose of annexation. In the 1860s, the first immigrants from
Germany began to appear on the islands. During these years, German
trading companies developed a whole network of trade in copra and other
goods. In 1885, the archipelago was annexed by the German Empire,
despite claims from Spain. Management on behalf of the empire was
carried out by the Jaluit company from Hamburg.
During the First
World War, in September 1914, Japan occupied part of Micronesia that
belonged to Germany, including the Marshall Islands. Since then, the
islands remained under the control of Japan until the occupation of the
archipelago by the Americans during the Second World War. Since 1920,
the Marshall Islands have been administered by Japan under a League of
Nations mandate.
After a brief occupation of the islands by the
US Army, the UN entrusted the administration of the Marshall Islands to
the United States as a Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. Soon, a
US strategic military base appeared on the Kwajalein Atoll, from where
nuclear weapons tests were carried out on the Bikini and Eniwetok
atolls, which were carried out from 1946 to 1958.
In 1979, the
archipelago received limited autonomy, and in 1986 the Treaty of Free
Association was signed with the United States, according to which the
United States recognized the independence of the Republic of the
Marshall Islands, and the Republic, in turn, granted the United States
military the right to be in the country; all military bases were also
preserved. The defense of the country became the responsibility of the
United States. In 1990, the United Nations recognized the independence
of the Marshall Islands.
The association agreement expired in
September 2001. After two years of negotiations, in 2003, the contract
was extended.
During the years of the Trust Territory, the Pacific Islands of the
Marshall Islands constituted one district.
The Marshall Islands
are currently divided into 33 municipalities: Ailinginae, Ailinglapalap,
Ailuk, Arno, Aur, Bikar, Bikini, Bokak, Voto, Jabat, Jaluit, Jemo, Kili,
Kwajalein, Lae, Lib, Likiep, Majuro, Medjit, Mili, Namorik, Namu,
Rongelap, Rongerik, Taka, Ujae, Ujelang, Utirik, Ebon, Enewetok, Erikub.
The four county centers, Majuro, Ebeye, Jaluit and Wotje, have local
governments with an elected council, a mayor, appointed officials and
local police.
The first official census of the Marshall Islands took place in
1920. Then 9800 people lived on the islands. Until 1958, the rate of
population growth was slow, but from 1958 to 1967 the annual
population growth reached 3.4%, and subsequently 4%. However,
already in 1988-1989, this value fell to 1.5%, despite the fact that
the birth rate remained very high. The downward trend in population
growth was caused by increased emigration of the population abroad,
primarily to the United States. According to the 1999 census, the
annual population growth of the Islands remained at the same level
of 1.5%, and increased to 2.1% according to the 2008 estimate.
According to the last census in 1999, the population of the
Marshall Islands was 50,840 people, while in the capital of the
state, the city of Majuro, more than 25 thousand people lived.
In 1999, 30,925 people lived on the islands of the Ratak chain,
and 19,915 people lived on the islands of the Ralik chain. The
highest population density was on Majuro Atoll: 6314 people. per
km². The lowest is on the Bikini and Rongelap atolls: 6 people. per
km².
According to the latest 2011 census, the population of
the Marshall Islands was 53,158.
The general trend of recent
years has been the outflow of population from remote islands to the
only cities in the country, Majuro on Majuro Atoll and Ebeye on
Kwajalein Atoll. So, in 1930, only 753 people lived in Majuro, and
in 2011 there were already 27,797 people. (growth by 36.9 times); in
Ebeye in 1930 - 19 people, in 2011 - 11,408 people. (an increase of
600.4 times). This creates an increased burden on the resources and
lands of both islands, leads to coastal abrasion, negatively affects
local ecosystems, and contributes to the destruction of
autochthonous flora and fauna. In the event of a significant rise in
the level of the World Ocean or global climate change, the
concentration of the population on individual islands can lead to
serious social and economic consequences.
Against the
background of urban population growth, on the outlying islands of
the country, population growth in 2011 compared to 1999 was observed
only on the islands of Jaluit, Lae, Lib, Rongelap, Utirik and
amounted to less than 1%, while on other islands there was a
decrease in population.
According to the 2011 census, men
accounted for 51.2% (27,243 people), women - 48.8% (25,915 people).
The share of the urban population according to the 2011 census is
73.8%, rural - 26.2%.
The proportion of children under 14
years old in 2011 was 40%, of the adult population from 15 to 59
years old - 56%, over 59 years old - 4%. The average life expectancy
for men in 1999 was 65.7 years, for women 69.4 years.
Ethnic
composition
The vast majority of the population of the Marshall
Islands are Marshallese. This is a Micronesian people, which is
divided into two ethnographic groups: Raylik and Rahtak (in
geography in a slightly different pronunciation: Ralik and Ratak, as
the two island chains of the country are called).
The share
of foreigners living in the country is only 2.3%: this is the lowest
indicator after the Northern Mariana Islands among the Pacific
countries. The largest non-Marshallese ethnic group is the Kosrae
people from the island of Kusaiye in the Caroline Islands. The
Marshall Islands also has a small population of Americans and
Filipinos.
In addition to English, the official language of the Marshall Islands
is Marshallese, which is a Micronesian language. The total number of its
speakers in 1979 was about 43,900 people.
The language uses the
Latin alphabet, supplemented by diacritics. It consists of 22 consonants
(plus one back-palatal sound that does not appear in spelling) and four
vowels, each of which has several allophones. The orthography of the
Marshallese language is highly unstable. Apart from having several
accepted spellings, the spelling in each of them is inconsistent.
The dominant religion in the Marshall Islands is Christianity, spread
in the archipelago by missionaries in the 19th century. The first of
these were Congregationalists from Boston, who landed on Ebon Atoll in
1857. The first Catholic missionaries appeared in the Marshall Islands
in 1899, subsequently building a church on Jaluit Atoll.
In 2008,
the proportion of Protestants (Congregational Church of Christ) was
54.8%, followers of the Assembly of God - 25.8%, Catholics - 8.4%,
Mormons - 2.1%
Political system
The Marshall Islands is a self-governing state
entity in free association with the United States. The constitution,
adopted on May 1, 1979, establishes a republican form of government that
combines features of the British and American political systems.
After gaining independence in 1983, a referendum was held in the
country, the result of which was a policy of continuing close ties with
the United States. In November 1986, the Agreement on Free Association
was signed, which was valid for 15 years. According to him, the Republic
of the Marshall Islands could pursue an independent foreign policy,
while the United States was responsible for the country's finances,
which also retained the exclusive right to the presence of US armed
forces on the Kwajalein Atoll. Compliance with the American nuclear test
program was guaranteed. In exchange for these concessions, the United
States took over the defense of the Islands, guaranteed the access of
the Marshall Islands to US federal programs, and the Marshallese were
given the right to live and work in the United States. At the same time,
the United States allocated significant funds to the Islands: in 1987 -
$ 48 million, in 2001-2002 - $ 34.7 million, thus, from 1987 to 2002,
the state budget of the Marshall Islands consisted of 70% of funds
received from the United States. The agreement expired in 2002. A new
20-year Free Association Agreement was signed on December 6, 2003. Under
it, the United States pledged to continue financing the economy of the
Marshall Islands (the amounts were agreed in advance in the agreement).
The supreme body of legislative power is the parliament, which
consists of two chambers: the Council of Leaders (march Council of
Iroij, upper house) and nitiyala (march Nitijela, lower house).
Legislative power is vested in the lower house of parliament, which
consists of 33 deputies. The term of office of the Chamber is four
years. Only a citizen of the Marshall Islands who has reached the age of
21 can become a candidate for the lower house of parliament. Deputies
are elected on the basis of universal suffrage. The candidate who
receives a simple majority is elected. At the first meeting after the
elections, the members of the lower house elect the speaker and his
deputy from among their members. The regular session of the House begins
on the first Monday of January and lasts for 50 days. The president has
the right to dissolve the lower house in the event of a two-time
no-confidence vote (if both times the new president was not elected), as
well as if the Cabinet was not formed within 30 days after the
presidential election.
The upper house, or Council of Chiefs, has
an advisory function: it can discuss any question relating to the
Marshall Islands and express its opinion to the Cabinet, as well as
require the revision of any law relating to customary law, traditional
practice or land tenure and passed by the lower house of parliament in
the third reading. The Council of Chiefs consists of 12 representatives
(marsh. Iroijlaplap) from the districts of the Ralik and Ratak chains:
the Ralik chain (without Ujelang) is represented by 4 people; Ujelang,
Mili, Arno, Mejit, Majuro, Airok (Motu in Maloelap Atoll), Likiep - 1
person from each district; the islands of Aur, Maloelap (without motu
Airok), Votje, Utirik and Ailuk have one representative. At the first
meeting of the council, the chairman of the Council of Chiefs and his
deputy are elected by secret ballot from among the representatives.
According to the Constitution of the Marshall Islands, the head of
state is the president, who is elected from among the members of the
lower house of parliament by the deputies themselves at the first
meeting after the general election. The candidate who receives the most
votes is elected. Since January 2016, the president of the country has
been Kasten Nemra.
The executive power of the Marshall Islands is
in the hands of the Cabinet of Ministers, whose members are collectively
responsible to the country's parliament. The Cabinet consists of the
President of the Marshall Islands, who must also be a member of the
lower house of the country's parliament, and other members of the house
appointed as their respective ministers. Ministerial nominations, which
must be at least 6 (candidates for the post of ministers of finance,
foreign affairs, communications and transport, resources and
development, social security, public works) and no more than 10, are
nominated by the president of the country from the lower house, and then
presented to the speaker chamber, which already appoints them as
ministers. If the president does not nominate at least 6 ministers
within 7 days after his election, then the president is removed from
office and new elections of the head of state are held.
The Cabinet exercises the general direction and control of the state
power of the country; submits to the lower house of parliament bills
that are necessary or desirable for the implementation of the policies
and decisions of the Cabinet, and also makes proposals for increasing
duties or other sources of the state budget and spending public money;
The cabinet is accountable to the lower house of parliament for all
public expenditures; is responsible for the country's foreign policy
(including treaties), signs international treaties with the approval of
the lower house of parliament and appoints ambassadors and heads of
diplomatic missions of the Marshall Islands; is responsible for taking
measures necessary to ensure the security of the country, provided that
the stationing of armed forces on the territory of the country in
peacetime is not allowed; The cabinet is endowed with the right of
pardon; The Cabinet is responsible for establishing and maintaining
hospitals and other institutions in the health care system of the
Marshall Islands; for the creation and maintenance of public schools in
the education system of the country; for the creation and maintenance of
other institutions necessary to maintain a high standard of living for
the people of the Marshall Islands, protect their legal rights, and
ensure the economic, social and cultural well-being of the Marshallese.
Judicial branch
The judiciary of the Marshall Islands is
independent of the legislative and executive branches. The country's
judicial system includes the Supreme Court, High Court, Traditional
Rights Court, District Courts, Community Courts, and other subordinate
courts by law. Every Court of the Marshall Islands has the power to make
rulings, lay down rules, issue orders, procedural instructions, not
contrary to applicable law and necessary for the administration of
justice and for the execution of the Constitution.
The Supreme
Court of the Marshall Islands is the highest written court established
by the constitution and has appellate jurisdiction with the right to
make a final decision on all cases heard by lower courts. The Supreme
Court consists of a presiding judge and other judges, the number of
which is stipulated by current legislation.
The High Court of the
Marshall Islands is the highest court of record, established by the
constitution and having general jurisdiction in matters of divergence of
law and fact. The High Court consists of a presiding judge and other
judges, the number of which is stipulated by current legislation. The
court also considers appeals against decisions of lower courts, checks
the legality of decisions of government agencies, unless otherwise
specified by law.
Judges of the Supreme and High Courts are
appointed by the Cabinet on the recommendation of the Judicial Service
Commission, with subsequent approval by the lower house of parliament.
The age limit for a judge is 72 years.
The traditional legal
court is a written court established by the constitution and consisting
of three or more judges who represent all classes of land law: the
paramount chief (march. Iroijlaplap), the lower chief (march.
Iroijedrik), the head of the communal/working clans ( march Alap),
community members/workers (march Dri Jerbal). The jurisdiction of the
traditional court of law includes the consideration of issues related to
the determination of the titles or land rights of the Marshallese, as
well as legitimate interests, which are wholly or partly determined by
the customary law and traditional practice existing in the Republic of
the Marshall Islands.
The District Courts hear civil suits up to
$10,000, except for matters falling within the jurisdiction of the High
Court, maritime matters, and land disputes. Community courts operate in
the municipalities of the country. They handle claims up to $200.
Constituencies
Voting rights are granted to citizens of the
Marshall Islands who have reached the age of 18. Persons recognized as
mentally ill, in places of deprivation of liberty and conditionally
released from criminal punishment have no right to participate in
elections. A voter can only vote in one constituency where he resides or
owns a land plot.
Voting rights are granted to citizens of the Marshall Islands who
have reached the age of 18. Persons recognized as mentally ill, in
places of deprivation of liberty and conditionally released from
criminal punishment have no right to participate in elections. A voter
can only vote in one constituency where he resides or owns a land plot.
The country is divided into 24 constituencies. Majuro district is
represented in the parliament by 5 deputies, Kwajalein - 3 deputies,
Ailinglaplap, Arno, Jaluit - 2 deputies, Ailuk, Aur, Bikini-Kili, Voto,
Votje, Jabat, Lae, Lib, Likiep, Maloelap, Mejit, Mili, Namorik, Namu,
Rongelap, Ujae, Utirik, Ebon, Enevetak-Ujelang - 1 deputy. Other
uninhabited islands are included in those constituencies with which they
are most closely associated (according to traditions, customs). The
country's parliament can change both the number of deputies in the
country's parliament and the boundaries of constituencies. At the same
time, the districts should have approximately the same number of
inhabitants, although geographical features, community interests, the
boundaries of existing administrative and traditional areas, means of
communication and population mobility can also be taken into account.
Local government
Under the Constitution, the population of any
atoll or island that is not part of an atoll (i.e. motu) is entitled to
a system of local government which operates in accordance with the laws
of the Marshall Islands in force. At the same time, local
self-government extends not only to the land of the atoll / island, but
also to the sea and the seabed of the internal waters of the island
(i.e. the lagoon) and to the waters of the ocean washing the island and
its bottom at a distance of 5 miles from the baseline from which the
territorial waters are measured atoll or island.
Political
parties
Traditionally, there are no formally organized political
parties in the Marshall Islands. Those organizations that are called
them are more like factions or groups that act in the interests of
certain circles. They have no headquarters, official ideology or party
structures. The two generally recognized parties in the country are the
Kabua Party, or Aelon Kein Ad, (translated from the Marshallese language
- "our islands") and the United Democratic Party. The country also has
another party, the United People's Party, which in January 2008,
together with the Kabua Party, formed the government of the Marshall
Islands.
The Republic of the Marshall Islands does not have a permanent
military force. However, according to the Free Association Agreement,
the United States is responsible for the security and defense of the
country. They must protect the Republic of the Marshall Islands and its
citizens from attacks and threats from outside, prevent access and use
of the Marshall Islands by military personnel or for military purposes
by any third state, establish and use military areas and installations
in accordance with the terms of the Treaty. The US may also conduct
military operations and operations on land, water and airspace in the
Marshall Islands. Unless otherwise specified, the United States shall
not detonate or station nuclear or any other weapon of mass destruction,
or radioactive, chemical, or biological material that could harm the
health or safety of the people of the Marshall Islands.
Internal
security is provided by the formations of the national police. In 2004,
100 criminal cases were considered in the High Court (in 2000 - 160);
Police in the cities of Majuro and Ebeye arrested 3,587 people.
According to the Treaty of Free Association of the Republic of the Marshall Islands with the United States, the country has the right to pursue an independent foreign policy on its own behalf, except as specified in the Treaty. The Marshall Islands can independently pursue a foreign policy in matters of maritime law and maritime resources, build commercial, diplomatic, consular, economic, trade, banking, postal, communication, cultural relations, relations related to civil aviation with other states, as well as negotiate with other states, international and intergovernmental organizations to receive grants and loans for the development of the country. The Republic of the Marshall Islands may sign on its own behalf international treaties and agreements with the governments of other countries and regional and international organizations.
The US Government shall, by mutual agreement, support applications by
the Government of the Republic of the Marshall Islands for membership or
other participation in regional and international organizations. The
Marshall Islands shall consult with the Government of the United States
on matters of its foreign policy, and the Government of the United
States shall consult with the Government of the Republic of the Marshall
Islands on matters which may concern the Marshall Islands. The US
Government is not responsible for the foreign policy commitments of the
Marshall Islands, except as expressly agreed upon by both parties. At
the request of the Government of the Marshall Islands, the United States
is also required to provide consular assistance to citizens of the
Marshall Islands.
The Republic of the Marshall Islands maintains
diplomatic relations with 72 countries, including Russia. However, only
the US, Taiwan and Japan have their embassies in Majuro. The Republic of
the Marshall Islands has embassies in the United States (in Washington),
Fiji, Japan, a consulate in Hawaii in Honolulu, and a mission in Taiwan
and the United Nations. Diplomatic relations between Russia and the
Republic of the Marshall Islands were established on August 6, 1992.
However, there is no Russian embassy in the country.
The Republic
of the Marshall Islands is a member of the UN (since September 17,
1991), the Secretariat of the Pacific Community, the Pacific Islands
Forum, the Asian Development Bank, the international organization of the
ACP countries and other international organizations.
In February
2021, the Marshall Islands withdrew from the Pacific Islands Forum, due
to dissatisfaction with the election of Henry Poon as Secretary General
of the organization.
The Marshall Islands are contesting their
rights to Wake Atoll, now a US territory.
The characteristics that determine the economic situation in the
Marshall Islands are no different from those of other countries in
Oceania: a huge exclusive economic zone, limited natural resources,
remoteness from the main world markets, and a shortage of highly
qualified specialists. The economy of the Marshall Islands is also
experiencing such serious difficulties as the state budget deficit,
balance of payments and low domestic savings. The country is heavily
dependent on funds provided by the Asian Development Bank, the United
States and other countries of the world. Therefore, the size of the
state budget of the Marshall Islands is largely determined by the amount
of foreign financial assistance.
Nevertheless, in recent years,
the country has achieved relative economic stability, although the
weaknesses of the local economy and the negative impact of external and
other factors that could negate the economic successes achieved have
remained. The most stable components of business activity in the
Marshall Islands are the public sector and financial and economic income
from the Reagan Test Site (USA) on Kwajalein Atoll, which is also a
major employer (it employs 1,200 to 1,300 Marshallese). In recent years,
there have also been improvements in the private sector, but it does not
have enough growth to solve the problem of rising unemployment in the
country. The public and private sectors remain particularly sensitive to
fluctuations in the external market: for example, after the September
11, 2001 terrorist attack in the United States and the bird flu epidemic
in Asia in 2001-2004, there was a sharp decline in the number of
tourists on the islands; negatively affects the economy and rising
prices for fuel, which is completely imported into the country.
According to the government of the Marshall Islands, in 2007 the
country's GDP was about $149 million, and per capita GDP was $2,851. The
national economic growth of the Islands is very uneven. In 2007, GDP
growth was 2%, in 2004 - 5.6%, while from 1996 to 1999 it was negative
(in 1996 -10.3%, in 1999 -2.9% ).
The main economic sectors of
the Marshall Islands are services and agriculture. Tourism is one of the
dynamically developing sectors of the country's economy.
According to a 2005 estimate, the inflation rate in the country was 3%.
Thanks to low taxes, the state is a popular offshore zone.
Agriculture
Despite the fact that the volume of agricultural
production in the Marshall Islands is small, agriculture plays an
important role in the life of the local population and is one of the key
sectors of the country's economy. The amount of land suitable for
cultivation is limited due to the small area of the atolls and the low
fertility of local soils.
Food crops are grown by households
mainly for their own consumption. The most important of them are coconut
palm, breadfruit, pandanus, bananas, taro. Other widespread crops
include pineapples, cucumbers, watermelons, capsicums, cabbages,
tomatoes, eggplants, pumpkins, and red peppers. Meat production
satisfies only the domestic market.
The country's most important
agricultural product is copra, which is produced mainly on the outlying
islands of the archipelago, for which the Marshall Islands government
subsidizes the price of this product in order to maintain the well-being
of local residents. The meaning of the subsidy is that the government
company Tobolar buys copra from local producers at a price higher than
the market price. In 2004 and 2005, these subsidies reached $900,000. In
2004, thanks to a grant from Taiwan, the Marshall Islands began to
produce soap and other products in addition to coconut oil.
Fishing
Against the background of the growing population of the
country, the Government of the Marshall Islands has declared the
development of the fishing sector of the economy one of the priority
areas of activity.
Coastal fishing plays an important role in the
life of the Marshallese. Of particular value, in addition to certain
types of fish, are a variety of crustaceans, primarily crabs, which go
to the domestic market. There are pearl farms on the atolls of Namorik
and Majuro, and a giant tridacna breeding station on Likiep.
The main export of the country is tuna, but its catch is carried out
mainly by foreign vessels, which are licensed to fish in the Exclusive
Economic Zone of the Marshall Islands. At the same time, licensing
income is largely dependent on weather conditions, for example, in the
country's waters, the largest amount of tuna is usually observed during
El Niño. For example, due to changes in tuna migration routes in recent
years, fish catches have declined sharply. The closure of a plant for
the production of tuna fillets in 2004 negatively affected the country's
economy. It was profitable from the point of view that it provided jobs
from 100 to 520 local residents, and was also a large taxpayer.
Transport
In 2007, the Marshall Islands had 2,028 km of highways
(including 75 km of expressways). There is no railway transport in the
republic.
The national carrier is Air Marshall Islands, which
operates domestic flights. The company was founded in 1980 under the
name "Airline of the Marshall Islands", since 1990 the modern name has
been used. Other airlines flying to the Marshall Islands are Continental
Airlines (flights from Honolulu and Guam to Majuro and Kwajalein) and
Our Airline/Air Nauru (flights from Brisbane (Australia) and Nadi
(Fiji)). In total, in 2007, there were 15 airports in the country, but
only four of them had a hard-surfaced runway.
Majuro Island has
public transport (charter buses), but the most popular mode of transport
is a taxi. The fare ranges from 50 cents to 2 dollars (between the most
remote points of the island), while the driver has the right to pick up
fellow travelers. Maritime traffic, both domestic and international, is
carried out by the Central Pacific Maritime Agency. The largest port in
the country is Majuro.
The press of the Marshall Islands is represented by only two
publications: the newspaper "Marshall Islands Gazette" is owned by the
government of the country and is published once a month; The Marshall
Islands Journal is privately owned and published weekly in English and
Marshallese. The islands have one AM station, three FM stations: V7AB
(owned by the government of the Marshall Islands), V7AA (religious radio
station), Micronesia Heatwave (private). In some parts of the country,
you can catch the signal of the radio station and TV channel of the
American military located on the Kwajalein Atoll. MBC TV is a public
channel.
Various types of telecommunication services are
available on the islands: telex, telephony, Internet. Majuro and
Kwajalein atolls have regular telephone service. Other islands can be
contacted via satellite or radiotelephone. In 2004, there were 4,500
home phones and 600 mobile phones in use in the country. In 2006, 2,200
people used the Internet in the Marshall Islands.
The tourism sector of the Marshall Islands economy remains in its
infancy, as the number of tourists arriving in the country remains quite
low compared to other countries in Micronesia. The main flow of tourists
is directed to the island of Majuro. In 2004, 9007 people visited the
island, in 2001 - 5444 people, in 1999 - 6116 people. The archipelago is
predominantly visited by citizens of the United States and Japan. In
2003, the total number of vacationers from the US decreased by 3%, while
those from Japan increased by about 2.5%. The main types of recreation
for foreigners: diving, sport fishing, cultural tourism, sailing on a
yacht.
Several factors negatively affect the development of
tourism: too high cost and duration of the flight to the Marshall
Islands, undeveloped infrastructure.
Citizens of the United
States and its territories, Palau, the Federated States of Micronesia,
the Pacific Islands Forum countries, including Australia and New Zealand
do not require a visa to enter the country. Citizens of Japan, Korea,
Taiwan and the Philippines are issued a visa valid for no more than 30
days upon entering the country. Tourists must have a return ticket and a
passport that does not expire before one year. For citizens of other
countries, a passport with an entry visa and a return ticket are
required.
The main exports of the Marshall Islands are agricultural products
(copra, coconut oil, fish). The country depends on imports of food,
manufactured goods, machinery and fuel. Imports are many times greater
than exports. In 2000, exports amounted to $ 9.1 million, and imports -
$ 54.7 million.
The main import partners in 2003 were the US
mainland (54.1%), Australia (13.4%), Guam (11.3%), Japan (4.9%), New
Zealand (3.4%) , Hong Kong (3.3%), Taiwan (2.9%). The main export
partners are the USA, Japan, Australia, China.
Monetary system
and finance
The monetary unit of the Marshall Islands is the US
dollar.
According to the 2007 budget, expenditures amounted to
$99.9 million, and revenues (including foreign receipts) - $98.9
million. According to 2004 data, budget revenues consisted of the
following items: and other grants 26%, taxes 25%, trust fund for damages
for nuclear testing 5%, other sources 13%. The main items of expenditure
were education (28%), health care (20%), special appropriations (7%),
expenses related to claims for damages from nuclear tests (6%),
depreciation expenses (6%), transport and communications (4 %), debt
service costs (1%), other expenses - 28%.
The domestic banking
system is represented by two foreign (Bank of Guam in Majuro and Bank of
Hawaii in Ebeya) and one local bank (Bank of the Marshall Islands). The
Bank of the Marshall Islands was incorporated on November 8, 1982 and
currently has an extensive network of branches in the country.
social organization
Even before the appearance of Europeans in the
Marshall Islands, the local population was divided into separate groups,
whose members had certain rights and obligations. At the heart of the
social organization of Marshall society lay the question of land
ownership. Each settlement consisted of several matrilineal clans (or
march. jowi). The main form of social organization was the clan (or
march. bwij), which was a group of people who traced their origin to a
common ancestor, and built on the basis of a matrilineal system in which
all land rights were transferred through the maternal line. The head of
the clan (or marsh. alab), usually the oldest male of the main line of
the clan, managed the land owned by the clan. A landholding (or marsh.
wāto) was a small strip of land stretching from the lagoon to the ocean
coast. One or more estates were under the control of a matrilineal line.
Local leaders (or march. irooj) had the right to the whole atoll or part
of it (motu). The heads of the clans organized and managed the
activities of people, allocated land for use by clans within the same
clan, and also organized and monitored the work of the community
members, who provided local leaders with food, presented them with
various gifts (or march. ekkan). The community members had land rights,
but they were constantly redistributed by the head of the clan. Only the
local chief had permanent land rights, but only until he was defeated by
another chief.
Culture and life
Sea travel
The significant
remoteness from each other of the islands of the country, fish as one of
the main foodstuffs of the population determined the skill of the people
of the country in fishing, including the construction of canoes (or
march. wa), which are able to overcome considerable distances. The
Marshallese themselves are excellent navigators who, over many
centuries, have learned to travel by the stars, clouds, currents, birds,
and even the color of the ocean.
Traditional canoes were carved
from breadfruit wood using coconut wickerwork. The sails were
embroidered by women from pandanus leaves. In total, there were three
types of outrigger canoes: karkar (march. kōrkōr, used for swimming or
fishing in the atoll lagoon; could accommodate up to three people),
tipnol (march. tipnol, used for swimming in the ocean or lagoon; could
accommodate up to ten people ) and ualap (march. walap, used when
sailing long distances; could accommodate up to fifty people).
To
teach sailing, the islanders used special maps, which were made only by
men from the root of a pandanus or the vein of a coconut palm leaf. They
depicted the direction of the current and waves, and islands were
designated by cowrie shells. In total, there were three types of such
maps: rebbelib (march. rebbelib), which showed all the Marshall Islands
or one of the two island chains; medo (march. medo) depicting individual
islands; mattang march. mattang or wappepe (march. wappepe) - a small
square-shaped map that showed the direction of the waves around a single
island. Despite the fact that the maps helped to navigate the open
ocean, the Marshallese themselves never took them sailing, relying on
their own memory.
Traditional crafts
Weaving of various mats,
traditional clothes and bags from pandanus leaves, coconut palm and
hibiscus has reached a high level in the Marshall Islands. Woven mats
have a wide range of uses: talao (march tōlao) is used for seating and
is made from whole pandanus leaves that are stitched together; jepko
(march. jepko) is used as a carpet or placed under a sleeping mat;
janini (marsh. janini) is used for sleeping, and jab (marsh. jab) is
used as a room decoration. In the homes of the Marshallese, round-shaped
wall decorations, or obon (march. obon), are also widespread. On the
island of Kili, beautiful women's bags and purses are weaved by people
from the Bikini Atoll, and Lykiep is known for its fans.
The Marshall Islands is not a member of the Oceania Football
Confederation and FIFA, therefore its national team cannot take part in
regional and international tournaments.
On May 1, 2007, the first
National Games were held in the country, where nine sports were
represented: softball, table tennis, tennis, basketball, volleyball,
athletics, canoeing and two traditional sports games, which brought
together about 1000 participants.
Basketball is the most popular
sport among men on the islands. Every year the National Basketball
Federation holds competitions. Tennis is mainly practiced on the Majuro
Atoll, and local tennis players participate in the South Pacific Games.
The country has never participated in the Winter Olympics. At the
Summer Olympics, the Marshall Islands were first represented at the 2008
Games, which were held in Beijing (China). The republic was represented
by five athletes who participated in athletics, swimming and taekwondo
competitions, but none of them won a prize.
The Marshall Islands health care system includes two hospitals
located in the cities of Majuro and Ebeye and 49 health centers on the
outlying islands. Majuro Hospital has 97 beds, as well as equipment
needed in general medicine, surgery, orthopedics, obstetrics,
gynecology, pediatrics, ophthalmology and dentistry. Ebeye Hospital
serves the population of Kwajalein and nearby islands with 43 beds.
In recent years, the country has seen improvements in the health
care system (eg reduction in child mortality, increase in life
expectancy). However, due to high population growth and density, the
number of people with diseases such as tuberculosis and leprosy has
increased.
In some parts of the Marshall Islands, health care
services are of poor quality, which negatively affects the health of the
local population. According to the study, which lasted from 1995 to
1999, 27% of children under five years of age did not receive enough
nutrients, and 57% of the population aged 18 to 50 suffered from
obesity.
Measures of the government of the Marshall Islands to
prevent the disease are being implemented quite slowly. Most of the
money allocated to health goes to various programs to combat
lifestyle-related diseases such as diabetes, hypertension,
cardiovascular disease and cancer. Often, patients are forced to be
treated outside the country, for example, in Honolulu (Hawaii, USA) or
Manila (Philippines).
Many citizens of the Marshall Islands
suffer from cancer, thyroid disease and various tumors caused by
radiation caused by nuclear tests in the Bikini and Enewetak atolls.
The education system in the Marshall Islands faces many challenges,
primarily due to the need to improve teaching at all levels of
education.
The educational system of the country consists of four
main stages:
pre-school education for children from three to five
years old through the centers of the state program "Head Start Program"
(total 49 centers) and schools with kindergarten programs (3 public and
13 private);
compulsory primary education for children between the
ages of six and fourteen through a system of public and private schools
(100 schools in total);
secondary education for children from fifteen
to eighteen years old through a system of public and private schools (17
schools in total);
secondary specialized education through the
College of the Marshall Islands (Eng. College of Marshall Islands) and
the USP-CMI educational program.
The city of Majuro also has a
campus of the University of the South Pacific, built in 1993.
Between 1988 and 1999, the number of students in the Marshall Islands
increased significantly: in primary schools - from 11,581 to 12,421
students, in secondary schools - from 1910 to 2667 students. However, in
subsequent years, the number of students in primary schools decreased,
which is mainly due to the outflow of the population to other countries
(primarily the United States): in the 2004/2005 academic year, 10,281
people studied in primary schools. The proportion of students of the
total number of children who have reached the required age to attend
school remains quite low (this indicator increased slightly: from 81.9
to 84.1% for primary schools and from 46.7 to 69.5% in secondary
schools).