Language: Arabic
Currency: Syrian pound (SYP)
Calling Code: 963
Syria (Arabic: سوريا Sūriyā), officially Syrian
Arab Republic is a sovereign country of the Near East, on the
eastern Mediterranean coast, whose form of government is the
semi-presidential unitary republic, currently plunged into the
Syrian Civil War since March 2011. It shares borders with Turkey in
the north, with Iraq in the east, with Israel, Jordan and the Sea of
Galilee in the south, and with Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea
in the west, the island of Cyprus being visible from its shores in
the distance. Syria is a member of the United Nations Organization
since its founding.
Syria has a population of 22.85 million inhabitants, most of whom
speak Arabic and profess the Islamic religion, with the Sunni being
the majority group. Among the non-Sunni Muslims in Syria are
Alawites and Shiites. In addition, there are minorities of the
Assyrian, Armenian, Turkish and Kurdish ethnic groups along with
thousands of Palestinian refugees.
After the First World War, the modern Syrian state emerged as a
French Mandate and represented the largest Arab state emerging from
the Levant after the end of Ottoman rule. On October 24, 1945, it
gained its independence and became a parliamentary republic,
although the French troops did not fully withdraw until April 1946.
The following years were very tumultuous, with consecutive coups and
attempts of failed blows between 1949 and 1963. Between 1958 and
1961 the country formed the United Arab Republic with Egypt, but its
ephemeral existence ended with the 1961 Syrian coup d'état. After
the Syrian Constitutional Referendum of 1961, the Syrian Arab
Republic was constituted although the 1963 coup the country remained
unstable. From March 8, 1963 until March 17, 2011, the Baath Arab
Socialist Party - Syria Region ruled the country under the
declaration of a state of emergency and since 1970 the presidency of
Syria has been exercised by family members. Asad, the first General
Hafez al-Asad, head of state from 1970 to 2000, followed by his son
Bashar al-Asad, current president.
Aleika Castle Medieval ruins of Aleika Castle are located near Tartous in Syria.
Aleppo is a second largest city in Syria. It is also one of the oldest cities in the World. History of Aleppo stretches for five thousand years.
Ancient Apamea is a former treasure city and stud-depot of the Seleucid kings.
Bani Qahtan Castle is a medieval Ismaeli Arab stronghold located in Latakia Governorate in Syria.
Bosra is a major ancient city in Syria that was designated as a UNESCO Word Heritage Site.
Bourzey Castle or Mirza Castle is situated on top of the mountain overlooking Ghab valley below in Syria.
Citadel of Salah Ed-Din (Saladin) in Syria was not actually built by him, but he took this impressive castle after a brief siege.
Ancient Doura Europos or Dura Europos is a Hellenistic, Parthian and Roman border city located in Syria.
Hosn Suleiman was inhibited since the time of Phoenicians. Today remains of Greek and Roman periods are mostly visible.
Krak des Chevaliers is one of the largest and best preserved castles from the time of the Crusades.
Medieval Margat Castle in Syria was one of the major strongholds of the Knights Hospitaller in the Holy Land.
Medieval Masyaf Castle became famous as the seat of Order of Assassins who used this stronghold as a base for their operations.
Palmyra as Romans called it or Tadmore as it is known to Syrians means literally a 'date tree'. The city is easily accessed by bases from Damascus.
Medieval Castle of Qal'at Ja'bar is situated on an island on the lake Assad and connected with mainland by a narrow causeway.
Ruins of Qasr al-Heer al-Sharqi is a medieval royal residence that still inspire awe of those who visit the site.
Qasr ibn Wardan is a well preserved complex in Syria from the early Byzantine period.
Rahbeh Castle also known as Qala'at Malek ibn Tauk are badly preserved ruins of the medieval castle in Syria.
Resafa Ancient and early medieval ruins of Resafa are located in Ar-Raqqah Governorate of Syria.
Shahba Ancient city of Shahba located in As-Suwayda Governorate is famous for its buildings and mosaics that adore them.
The name "Syria" comes from the ancient Greek name of the colonies of Assyria, formed from the Semitic word "Sirion". The area on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea south of Cilicia, between Egypt and Mesopotamia, including the Armenian regions of Commagene, Sophene and the Assyrian region of Adiabene, is described by Pliny the Elder as "former Assyria." By the time Pliny completed his main work, Natural History, this region was divided by the Roman Empire into several provinces: Judea (later Palestine, modern Israel, the PNA and part of Jordan), Phoenicia (modern Lebanon), Mesopotamia and Coele-Syria (i.e. "Hollow Syria").
Ancient Syria
The history of Syrian civilization dates back at
least to the 4th millennium BC.
Eblaite is the oldest known
Semitic language. In the Ebla Library, discovered in 1975, more than
17,000 clay tablets dedicated to crafts, agriculture and art were found.
Among the leading crafts of Ebla are the processing of wood, ivory, and
pearls. Other famous cities of the era include Mari, Ugarit and
Dura-Europos.
In the XXIII century BC. Ebla was conquered by
Akkad, and the capital was completely destroyed. Then the Canaanite
tribes invaded the territory of Syria, forming many small states. During
the period between the invasion of the Canaanite tribes and the conquest
of Syria in 64 BC. The Roman Empire, its territory was successively
ruled by the Hyksos, Hittites, Egyptians, Arameans, Assyrians,
Babylonians, Persians, ancient Macedonians, the Hellenistic power of the
Seleucids, the Great Armenia of Tigran the Great.
From the 16th
century BC e. in the south of Syria there is the city of Damascus,
originally subordinate to the Egyptian pharaohs.
Syria occupies
an important place in the history of Christianity - according to the
Bible, Paul adopted the Christian faith on the road to Damascus, and
then lived in Antioch, where the disciples of Christ first began to be
called Christians (Acts of the Apostles).
Islamic rule
Islam
gained a foothold in Syria in 661, when Damascus became the capital of
the Arab Caliphate under the Umayyads. At this time, the Caliphate was
already a powerful state, stretching from the Iberian Peninsula to
Central Asia. Damascus became the cultural and economic center of the
entire Arab world, already in the VIII century being one of the largest
cities in the world. In 750, the Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid
dynasty, after which the capital of the Caliphate moved to Baghdad.
In the XII century, crusader states were formed on the territory of
Syria, which lasted less than a hundred years. From the 13th century,
Damascus became the provincial center of the Mamluk Empire. In 1400,
Syria was attacked by the Timurids. Tamerlane defeated the Mamluk
detachments, destroyed Damascus and took all his wealth to Samarkand.
Since 1517, Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire for 4 centuries.
On the eve of the First World War, the territory of modern Syria was
part of the three vilayets of the Ottoman Empire - Beirut, Aleppo and
Damascus (Syria). The eastern, sparsely populated and mostly desert part
of modern Syria was the western part of the independent sanjak of Zor
with its center in Deir ez-Zor. The territory of the Sanjak of Zor
roughly coincides with the territory controlled in 2014-2017 by the
Islamic State.
French Mandate
Shortly after the defeat in the
First World War, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and many of its
territories were occupied. In 1920, the Syrian Arab Kingdom was founded
with its center in Damascus. Faisal of the Hashemite dynasty, who later
became the king of Iraq, was declared king. But the independence of
Syria did not last long. A few months later, the French army occupied
Syria, defeating the Syrian troops on July 23 at the battle of the
Maysalun Pass.
In 1922, the League of Nations decided to legalize
the occupation of the lands of the Ottoman Empire by Great Britain and
France. Great Britain in 1917 occupied part of the Ottoman Empire - the
region "Palestine". In 1922, the regime of direct occupation is replaced
by administrative control - Mandate from the League of Nations.
Subsequently, Palestine was divided. The lands east of the Jordan River
were separated from it, where Transjordan was created under the
protectorate of Great Britain.
France, in turn, receives in 1922
the Mandate of the League of Nations for the territory of Syria. In
1926, the mandated territory was divided into Lebanon and Syria.
In 1926, the country's constitution was introduced in Lebanon,
confirming the mandate of France and providing for an elected president
and a unicameral parliament.
In 1936, a treaty was signed between
Syria and France providing for the independence of Syria, but in 1939
France refused to ratify it. In 1940, France itself was occupied by
German troops and Syria came under the control of the Vichy Regime
(Governor-General Henri Dentz). Nazi Germany, having provoked a
rebellion by Prime Minister Gailani in British Iraq, sent units of its
air force to Syria.
In June-July 1941, with the support of
British troops, Free French units, led by Generals Charles de Gaulle and
Georges Catrou, occupied Syria during a bloody conflict with Dentz's
troops. General de Gaulle in his memoirs directly pointed out that the
events in Iraq, Syria and Lebanon were directly related to the German
plans to invade Greece (including the island of Crete), Yugoslavia and
the USSR, since they had the task of diverting the Allied armed forces
to secondary theaters of war.
On September 27, 1941, France granted independence to Syria, leaving
its troops on its territory until the end of World War II. On January
26, 1945, Syria declared war on Germany and Japan. In April 1946, French
troops were evacuated from Syria under pressure from the USSR and
opposition from the United States. After that, the Syrian government for
decades went in the direction of the predominance of foreign contacts
with the USSR.
recent history
Shukri al-Kuatli, who fought for
the country's independence under the Ottoman Empire, became the
president of independent Syria. In 1947, a parliament began to operate
in Syria. The main political forces were the pro-presidential National
Socialist Party of Syria (at the moment it operates only in Lebanon),
the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party and the then underground Communist
Party of Syria. The National Social Party of Syria was the bearer of the
pro-fascist ideology of the "welfare state", distinguished by
anti-Semitism and sympathy for the Nazis. Many Nazi criminals took
refuge in Syria and became the founders of its special services.
After Syria gained independence, attacks on Syrian Jews intensified, and
their businesses were boycotted. The new government banned emigration to
Palestine, and the teaching of Hebrew in Jewish schools was severely
restricted.
After the adoption of the UN decision on the
partition of Palestine on November 27, 1947, Jewish pogroms took place
in Syria. Only in Aleppo, with a Jewish community that lived in the city
for 2.5 thousand years and numbered from 6 to 7 thousand Jews, on
December 1, 1947, 150 houses, 5 shops and 10 synagogues were destroyed.
From 8 to 75 Jews were killed, several hundred were wounded. After the
pogrom, many Jews fled the city to Turkey and Lebanon, to the territory
of the future Israel and to the USA. In 1948, the Jewish community of
Syria, which numbered 50,000 in 1900, was reduced to 30,000. The pogroms
continued in 1948 and in subsequent years, as a result, Jews were forced
to flee almost completely from Syria to Israel, the United States and
the countries of South America, and there are currently fewer than 100
Syrian Jews living in Damascus and Latakia.
In 1948, the Syrian
army took a limited part in the Arab-Israeli war launched by the Arab
League. At the end of the war, accusations against the government of
incompetence and misappropriation of funds began to be heard in the
country's parliament, which forced him, after the riots, to resign, and
the military to introduce a state of emergency in the country. Colonel
Husni al-Zaym came to power, revoking the 1930 constitution, banning
political parties, and subsequently proclaiming himself president.
On August 14, 1949, al-Zaim was killed and power passed to Colonel
Sami Hinawi, who restored the civilian regime. The People's Council was
chosen to adopt the new constitution, with the majority in the Aleppo
branch of the National Party, which favors union with Iraq. The idea of
a political union with Iraq caused discontent among the military,
whose leader was Adib al-Shishakli, and on December 19, Hinawi was
removed. On September 5, 1950, a new constitution was proclaimed,
according to which Syria became a parliamentary republic, but already in
November 1951, the constitution was suspended, and the country's
parliament was dissolved. In 1953, Shishakli promulgated a new
constitution and, after a referendum, became president.
In
February 1954, a military-civilian coalition led by Hashim Bey Khalid
al-Atassi came to power in the country, returning the 1950 constitution.
In 1954, following the results of the elections, the Arab Socialist
Renaissance Party won the majority of seats in parliament, demanding
fundamental changes in industry and agriculture. In the elections in
1955, Shukri al-Quatli was elected president of the country, with the
support of Saudi Arabia and the conservatives in parliament.
On
March 15, 1956, a collective security treaty was concluded between
Syria, Egypt and Saudi Arabia against possible Israeli aggression.
In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis, Syria
signed a treaty with the Soviet Union. This became a fulcrum for
communist influence in the government in exchange for military
equipment. Turkey was concerned about this increase in the strength of
Syrian military equipment, as it seemed possible that Syria would try to
take back Iskenderun. Only a heated debate in the United Nations stopped
the threat of war.
United Arab Republic
On February 22, 1958,
in the wake of the popularity of the pan-Arab movement, Syria and Egypt
united into one state - the United Arab Republic with its center in
Cairo. Egyptian leader Gamal Abdel Nasser became the president of the
new state, but the Syrians also held many important posts. However,
Nasser soon dissolved all Syrian political parties. In Syria,
large-scale nationalization of agriculture began, and then industry and
the banking sector. The formation of a new state was supported by the
leadership of the USSR: loans were granted to the UAR, and the
participation of the USSR in more than fifty industrial construction
projects was also announced.
In Syria, dissatisfaction with the
unification gradually grew. The Syrians believed that all the leading
positions were occupied by the Egyptians, and they are in a
disadvantaged position. Soon, discontent turned into an open rebellion:
on September 28, 1961, a coup d'état took place in Damascus under the
leadership of a group of officers; The Egyptians tried to suppress the
center of resistance, but to no avail. A national government headed by
Mamun Kuzbari was created. Thus, the UAR lasted only 3.5 years.
Syrian Arab Republic
One of the most secular states of the Arab East,
in particular, the church is separated from the state, the budget is
separated from the expenses of the ruling group, elections are held.
After Syria left the confederation, the country was headed by liberal
Nazim al-Qudsi. He returned many nationalized enterprises to their
former owners. On March 28, 1962, a coup again took place in the country
under the leadership of the same group of army officers. Al-Qudsi and
his prime minister were arrested. After 5 days, supporters of the former
regime overthrew the interim government, and Al-Qudsi again became the
president of the country.
On March 8, 1963, a military coup again
took place in Syria, as a result of which the Arab Socialist Renaissance
Party (PASV) came to power (the name “Baath” (ar. “revival”) is often
used). In 1964, a new constitution was adopted, which established the
leading role of the PASV. The country was headed by Amin al-Hafez, who
launched radical socialist reforms. In particular, the nationalization
of the main sectors of the economy was again carried out. On February
23, 1966, Syria was shaken by the fifth coup in 4 years, led by Salah
Jadid and Hafez al-Assad. Amin al-Hafez was overthrown, but the PASV
remained in power, and the socialist path of Syria's development
remained largely unchanged.
In 1967, during the Six Day War, the
Golan Heights were occupied by Israel. Israeli air strikes during the
war caused enormous damage to the economy. The failure of the government
to ensure the restoration of industry after the war led to
anti-government actions in 1968-1969. In November 1970, as a result of
the "corrective movement" in the PASP, which was headed by Hafez
al-Assad, Salah Jadid's group was removed from power. Thus, Syria became
the main ally of the Soviet Union in the Middle East. The USSR provided
Syria with assistance in modernizing the economy and the armed forces.
In 1973, Syria, along with other Arab states, attacked Israel. The
Arabs failed to defeat Israel, and after 18 days the war was stopped. By
decision of the UN Security Council, at the end of the war in 1973, a
buffer zone was created separating Israel and Syria. At the moment, the
Golan Heights are controlled by Israel, but Syria is demanding their
return.
In 1976, at the request of the Lebanese government,
Syrian troops entered the country to stop the civil war. The war ended
in 1990 with the establishment of a government in Lebanon that maintains
friendly relations with Syria. Syrian troops left Lebanon only in 2005,
after the assassination of Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Hariri.
Syria supported Iran in the Iran-Iraq war of 1980-1988.
In
1976-1982, an armed struggle of Islamists against the ruling Baath Party
unfolded in the country, accompanied by mass demonstrations and
terrorist attacks. The events were called the Islamic uprising. The
uprising was led by the Sunni Muslim Brotherhood. The key episode was
the massacre in Hama in February 1982, during which the Syrian army
bombed and then stormed the opposition stronghold of the city of Hama.
According to various estimates, from 17 to 40 thousand people were
killed, including 1,000 soldiers.
After the death of Hafez
al-Assad on June 10, 2000, who had ruled the country for almost 30
years, his son Bashar al-Assad was elected president following a
referendum.
In the US State Department's 2002 report, "The Traits of
International Terrorism in 2001", published in 2002, Syria was named a
state that supports terrorism. In 2003, in response to criticism of the
coalition invasion of Iraq, the United States accused Syria of
supporting terrorism and imposed sanctions on it.
According to
some reports, during the Israeli-Lebanese war in 2006, Syria supplied
weapons to Hezbollah.
On May 27, 2007, in a referendum, Bashar
al-Assad was re-elected for a new seven-year presidential term. He was
supported by 97.62% of voters.
According to the Deputy Foreign
Minister of the Russian Federation, bilateral relations between the
Russian Federation and Syria include politics, economics, investment and
culture.
As of 2011, 75-100 thousand citizens of the Russian
Federation lived in Syria. For decades, there have been agreements on
cooperation in various fields at the government level. Russia considers
Syrian Kurdistan a part of Syria, and since 2016 a public organization
of Syrian Kurds has been opened in the Russian Federation.
Since
the 19th century, Russia has already occupied the fourth place in
Syria's foreign trade turnover.
Civil war in Syria (since 2011)
The revolutions taking place in the Middle East have also spread to
Syria. In March 2011, in the city of Dar'a in the south of the country,
and then in other cities of the country, protests began demanding a
change in the existing regime. These speeches for the most part began on
Fridays after Friday prayers, which led to their name "Friday
Revolution". Various demands were put forward, from the resignation of
the government to the overthrow of the regime. In connection with these
events, the country's leadership made serious changes: it canceled the
law on the state of emergency, the laws on the media and political
parties, announced democratic reforms.
On December 11, 2012, news
agencies reported that the United States no longer perceives Bashar
al-Assad as the leader of Syria and is relying on the armed opposition
(Syrian National Coalition).
On June 3, 2014, the first
presidential elections were held in Syria since the Baath party came to
power in 1963, in which Bashar al-Assad was re-elected for a third term.
By the summer of 2014, the eastern part of the country was under the
rule of the Islamic State, which proclaimed the creation of a caliphate
in part of the territory of Syria and Iraq, with its capital in the city
of Raqqa.
As of April 2015, as a result of hostilities, 3.9
million Syrians left their country, and another 7.6 million were
internally displaced persons. Most refugees find shelter in Egypt,
Jordan, Lebanon and Turkey, about 200 thousand people left for European
countries, which is why the number of migrants near the borders of the
European Union reached in July 2015 the highest figure since the start
of such a count in 2008. As the authorities regained control over the
territories, the return of refugees began, about 1-1.7 million refugees
are ready to return.
After a series of serious defeats in 2015
(the loss of the cities of Idlib and Palmyra, as well as the capture of
the Abu ed-Duhur air base), at the end of September, official Damascus
turned to the Russian Federation for military assistance. On September
30, Russia officially confirmed the transfer to Syria of an aviation
group of several dozen aircraft and helicopters and support units.
In March 2015, the US Secretary of State announced the need to
establish a dialogue with the official government of Syria. According to
The Wall Street Journal correspondents Noor Malas and Carol Lee, the
administration of US President Barack Obama for a number of years held
secret negotiations with representatives of the Syrian authorities in
order to find people who would be ready to assist in a military coup and
removal from the leadership of the country of the current President
Bashar al-Assad.
In the period 2015-2016, hostilities continued
throughout the country. The armed opposition, consisting of many groups,
continued systematic shelling of cities under the control of government
troops, there were street battles with the use of heavy weapons in
several large cities of the country, including the capital.
The
turning point in the military conflict was the liberation of the city of
Aleppo by the Syrian army on December 22, 2016. In early 2017, the
Syrian army concentrated its main forces on the fight against the
Islamic State, as a result of which, by the end of autumn, the Islamic
State had lost most of its territories in Syria, retaining only a few
small territories controlled by it in different parts of the country
(Yarmouk camp to the south from Damascus, south of Idlib governorate,
Quneitra governorate, as well as small areas of the eastern bank of the
Euphrates River). On December 6, 2017, Russian President V.V. Putin
officially announced the complete defeat of the terrorists of the
Islamic State with the preservation of separate centers of resistance.
The amount of spending from the Russian budget for military operations
in Syria has not been disclosed. After the completion of the operation
in the east of the country, the main hostilities moved to the
governorate of Idlib.
Syria is a multi-party presidential-parliamentary republic.
The head of state is the president. The president, according to the
country's constitution, is elected for 7 years, the number of terms in
office is limited to two consecutive terms. The president has the power
to appoint a cabinet of ministers, declare martial law or a state of
emergency, sign laws, grant amnesties, and amend the constitution. The
president determines the country's foreign policy and is the supreme
commander of the armed forces.
Legislative power in the country
is represented by the People's Council (Arabic مجلس الشعب - Majlis
ash-Shaab). Deputies of the 250-seat parliament are directly elected for
a 4-year term. Following the results of the parliamentary elections in
2003, 7 parties passed to the People's Council. Led by the Ba'ath, they
form the Syrian National Progressive Front (NPF). 83 deputies do not
have party affiliation. The People's Council approves the country's
budget and is also involved in legislative activities.
The
judicial system is a unique combination of Islamic, Ottoman and French
traditions. The basis of Syrian legislation is, according to the
constitution, Islamic law, although the actual legislation in force is
based on the Napoleonic Code. There are three levels of courts: the
Court of First Instance, the Court of Appeal and the Constitutional
Court, which is the highest instance. The Constitutional Court is
composed of five judges, one of whom is the President of Syria and four
others are appointed by the President. Thus, the president has full
control over both the executive and legislative and judicial powers.
In addition to this, the system of religious courts deals with
family matters and other domestic matters.
The government of Syria is headed by the prime minister. The current
Prime Minister is Imad Khamis.
On February 15, 2006, career
diplomat Farouk Sharaa was sworn in as vice president of Syria, who, as
vice president, should oversee the country's foreign policy and
information policy. The oath was also taken by new ministers appointed
during the February 11 government reshuffle.
The Syrian Foreign
Ministry was headed by Walid al-Muallem, who for ten years was the
Syrian ambassador to the United States, and since the beginning of 2005
served as deputy foreign minister. The government of Mohammed Naji Otri
included 14 new ministers. The head of the military police, Bassam Abdel
Majid, took over the post of interior minister, which remained vacant
after the suicide of former Syrian Interior Minister Ghazi Kanaan in
October 2005. Deputy Prime Minister for Economics Abdallah Dardari,
Defense Minister Hassan Turkmani, Finance Minister Mohammed Al-Hussein,
Minister of Economy and Trade Amer Lutfi.
In the course of subsequent
personnel changes, the former Chief of the General Staff of the Syrian
Armed Forces, Ali Habib, became the Minister of Defense, and Lamia Asi
became the Minister of Economy.
Since 1963, a state of emergency has been in effect in Syria, in
connection with which there have been expanded powers of law enforcement
agencies. Because of this, the country has often faced accusations of
violating civil rights. In particular, Amnesty International has
repeatedly mentioned in its reports the presence of hundreds of
political prisoners in the country, the use of torture as a common
practice, the absence of a fair and independent judiciary, and
discrimination against women and national minorities.
Syria is
one of the most secular countries in the Arab world.
In April
2011, the state of emergency was lifted.
Representatives of
several religions and peoples live in the country. In 1960-1980, the
official authorities carried out a strict assimilation of the Kurdish
minority (10% of the Kurds did not have citizenship, but a residence
permit, since 2011 the rights of the Kurds were increased to be secured
by a separate law instead of "common grounds"). Since the 1960s,
publications in the Kurdish language, its teaching in schools and even
its use in personal communication in public places have been banned in
the country. The Kurds did not have the right to create cultural,
educational, public and sports organizations. This did not cause any
armed confrontation; in parallel, in neighboring Turkey, the "Kurdish"
issue is constantly in an acute military stage.
In the early
1980s, there was a local uprising by an armed, non-governmental
religious group that killed up to 40,000 people.
The country uses
the death penalty.
A number of human rights organizations in
their reports regularly characterize Syria as an extremely unfavorable
country in terms of human rights. Human Rights Watch, Amnesty
International, Freedom House and others accuse the Syrian authorities of
restricting freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, torture and
deprivation of medical care.
According to the Thomson Reuters Foundation, which published a rating of the most dangerous countries for women in the world in January 2019, Syria ranks third in the list of countries with the greatest number of risks for women in terms of health care, access to economic resources, ordinary life, sexual violence, human trafficking.
Syria's foreign policy is oriented, first of all, to the settlement
of all, including territorial disputes with Israel related to the return
of the Golan Heights to the jurisdiction of Damascus. Although Syria's
relations with other Arab countries were damaged after President Assad
spoke out in support of Iran during the Iran-Iraq war, Syrian diplomacy
is trying in every possible way to rally the Arab world around the
problem of a Middle East settlement.
Syria has a special
relationship with Russia. Damascus considers the Russian Federation as
its main military-political and trade-economic partner. The possibility
of locating a Russian naval base in the Mediterranean port of Tartus is
being considered. Traditionally, Russia is a supplier of weapons and
other military products to Syria.
Relations with the West are
more strained. The United States accuses the Syrian authorities of
sponsoring international terrorism, encouraging Iraqi resistance, and
arming Hezbollah. Also, the United States has repeatedly accused the
government of Bashar al-Assad of violating human rights and dictatorial
methods of government.
Relations with France remained good for
decades, thanks to the huge work and investments in the Syrian economy
that began even before the 2nd World War.
On July 20, 2022, Syria
announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Ukraine. This
decision was a reaction to the actions of Kyiv, which back in 2018
refused to renew visas for Syrian diplomats.
The area of Syria is 185.2 thousand km².
Relief
The
Ansariya (An-Nusayriya) mountain range divides the country into a humid
western part and an arid eastern part. The fertile coastal plain is
located in northwestern Syria and stretches for 130 km from north to
south along the Mediterranean coast from the Turkish to the Lebanese
border. Almost all of the country's agriculture is concentrated here.
The highest mountain in Syria is Nabi Yunis (1575 m). Most of the Syrian
territory is located on an arid plateau dotted with the mountain ranges
of Dajabl-ar-Ruwak, Jabal-Abu-Rujmayn and Jabal-Bishri. The average
height of the plateau above sea level ranges from 200 to 700 meters. To
the north of the mountains is the Hamad desert, to the south is Homs.
The climate is generally dry. The average annual rainfall does not
exceed 100 mm. The average temperature in January is +7.2 °С, in July
+26.6 °С.
Water resources
In the east, Syria is crossed by the
Euphrates and flows through its territory for 675 km. In 1973, a dam was
built in the upper reaches of the river, which led to the formation of a
reservoir called Lake Asada. In the areas along the Euphrates,
agriculture is widespread. Large tributaries of the Euphrates are Khabur
and Belikh. In the extreme northeast, for 44 km along the border with
Turkey, the second main river of the Middle East, the Tigris, flows. And
in the west flows the Orontes River (El-Asi, 325 km), which flows from
Lebanon to Turkey. The Yarmouk River flows along the border with Jordan.
Flora and fauna
Ficus, magnolia, plane tree, cypress, myrtle,
laurel, hibiscus grow in the west of Syria. Aleppo pine is endemic to
Syria. Citrus, olive trees, figs and grapes are cultivated in irrigated
areas. The forests proper (of beech and cedar) occupy a small part of
the territory of Syria. In the east of Syria, desert vegetation
prevails: tamarisk, astragalus, camel thorn, biyurgun, saxaul, boyalych.
The animal world is not rich, there are antelopes, wild boars, jackals,
foxes, hares, hyenas, the Syrian hamster and the Syrian brown bear.
Storks and herons come to Syria for the winter.
Syria is divided into 14 governorates, the head of which is appointed by the Minister of the Interior after the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers. Each governorate elects a local parliament. The governorate of Quneitra has been occupied by Israel since 1973, part of the governorate is under the control of the UN.
The territory of the Golan Heights makes up the Syrian governorate of
Al-Quneitra, with its center in the city of the same name. Israeli
troops captured the Golan Heights in 1967, and until 1981 the region was
under the control of the Israel Defense Forces. In 1974, the UN
Emergency Forces were introduced into the region. A demarcation line was
drawn directly along the eastern border of the Quneitra governorate and
a demilitarized zone was established. The United Nations Disengagement
Observer Force (UNDOF) is based in the area.
In 1981, the Israeli
Knesset passed the "Golan Heights Law", which unilaterally declared
Israeli sovereignty over the territory. The annexation was invalidated
by the UN Security Council Resolution of 17 December 1981 and condemned
by the UN General Assembly in 2008.
The center of the Israeli
Golan was the city of Katzrin. The majority of the non-Jewish population
in the Golan are Druze retaining Syrian citizenship (they are granted
the right to acquire Israeli citizenship). In Syria, they enjoy some
privileges, in particular, they are guaranteed free higher education.
In 2005, the population of the Golan Heights was approximately 40
thousand people, including 20 thousand Druze, 19 thousand Jews and about
2 thousand Alawites. The largest settlement in the region is the Druze
village of Majdal-Shams (8.8 thousand people). Initially, only UNDOF
personnel had the right to move freely between Syria and Israel. But in
1988, the Israeli authorities allowed Druze pilgrims to cross into Syria
so that they could visit the Temple of Abel, located in the neighboring
governorate of Dar'a. Also, since 1967, Druze brides who decide to marry
a Syrian are allowed to move to the Syrian side, and they already lose
their right to return. Syria and Israel are de jure at war.
Weaknesses: Civil War. international sanctions.
In 2014, the
decline in GDP was also caused by international sanctions, destroyed
infrastructure, reduced domestic consumption and production, and high
inflation. In 2014, the war and the ongoing economic downturn created a
humanitarian catastrophe, with the number of people in need in Syria
rising from 9.4 million to 12.2 million, and the number of refugees
rising from 2.2 million to 3.3 million. Syria's problems in the long
term are foreign trade barriers, reduced oil production, high
unemployment, and lack of water resources.
The inflation rate in
2014 was estimated at 34.8%. In 2014, according to Transparency
International's Corruption Perceptions Index (an annual ranking of the
countries of the world, reflecting the assessment of the level of
perception of corruption by international analysts), Syria was ranked
159 out of 175 countries. According to the World Bank's annual Doing
Business ranking in 2014, Syria was ranked 165th in terms of ease of
doing business.
The public sector, which retained the leading
role in the economy (70% of the main means of production), accounts for
about half of the national income and approximately 75% of the value of
industrial output. The state fully controls the sphere of finance,
energy, rail and air transport. As part of the course towards gradual
liberalization and modernization of the economy proclaimed by the Syrian
leadership, a line has been taken to provide public sector enterprises
with greater economic independence, in particular, the right to enter
the foreign market and attract foreign investment.
The private
sector has grown rapidly. It produces 25% of the value of industrial
products, it occupies a dominant position in agriculture (almost 100%),
domestic trade (90%), foreign trade (70%), services, vehicles, housing
construction.
The main part of the national income is created in
industry. The most developed industries are oil, oil refining, electric
power, gas production, phosphate mining, food, textile, chemical
(production of fertilizers, plastics), and electrical engineering.
Agriculture (50% of the working population) accounts for about 30%
of national income and 17% of export earnings (cotton, livestock
products, vegetables and fruits). Only a third of the territory of Syria
is suitable for agriculture.
In the future, political
instability, hostilities and trade and economic sanctions imposed on
Syria led to a deterioration in the country's economy.
by May 23,
2012, the losses from international sanctions against Syria amounted to
4 billion US dollars, the sanctions led to a shortage of essential goods
On January 10, 2013, the Syrian Foreign Ministry sent a message to the
UN Security Council, in which it notified the international community
about the looting of about 1,000 factories and enterprises by militants
in the commercial and industrial center of Aleppo. Equipment and goods
were illegally exported to Turkish territory, and the Turkish border
authorities did not prevent this.
International trade
In 2016,
the volume of Syria's foreign trade amounted to - Export $ 748 million
am. dollars, import - $4.17 billion am. dollars, the negative balance of
foreign trade - $ 3.42 billion am. Doll.
Main export commodities:
fruits and vegetables, spices, oilseeds, cotton.
The main buyers
are Lebanon 17% (US$127 million), Egypt 16% (US$116 million), Jordan 12%
(US$88.1 million), Turkey 8.5% (63.5 US$ million) and Saudi Arabia 7.8%
($58.2 million US$)
The main imports are foodstuffs (sugar,
vegetable oils, flour and grain products, etc.), machinery and
equipment, including cars, cigarettes, timber and chemicals.
The
main suppliers are Turkey 27% (US$1.13 billion), China 22% (US$915
million), Lebanon 4.8% (US$198 million), South Korea 4.7% ( US$193
million) and Egypt 4.4% (US$181 million)
The share of Russia is
2% in imports and 1.4% in exports.
In the structure of Russia's
exports to Syria in 2017, the main share of deliveries fell on the
following types of goods (the percentage of the total volume of Russia's
exports to Syria is indicated): Food products and agricultural raw
materials - 34.76%, Wood and pulp and paper products - 15.59 %, Products
of the chemical industry - 10.46% (in 2016 - 4.13%); Machinery,
equipment and vehicles - 5.01%
In the structure of Russia's
imports from Syria in 2017, the main share of deliveries fell on food
products and agricultural raw materials - 95.43% of Russia's total
imports from Syria.
Car roads
The total length of roads in Syria is 36,377 km. Of
them:
paved - 26,299 km;
without hard coating - 10,078 km.
Railways
The total length of railways is 2750 km. In Syria, two types
of gauge are used at once. 2423 km of roads were laid with a standard
gauge of 1435 mm, and 327 km with a gauge of 1050 mm. A road with a
gauge of 1050 mm was built by the Ottoman Empire at the beginning of the
20th century and connected Damascus with Medina. This thread is
currently inactive. Railway communication is established with three
neighboring states: Turkey, Iraq and Jordan. At present, the
construction of the Tartus-Latakia line is underway; it is planned to
lay the railways Damascus - Dara and Deir ez-Zor - Abu Kemal.
Air
Transport
The number of airports is 104 (1999), of which 24 have
concrete runways. 3 have international status. The state-owned airline,
Syrianair, operates flights to more than 50 cities.
Pipeline
transport
The total length of pipe lines is 1,304 km, of which 515
are oil pipelines.
Sea transport
The main ports on the
Mediterranean Sea: Tartus, Latakia, Banyas.
According to the United Nations Population Fund, the total population
of Syria in 2011 was 20.8 million, including 10.5 million men and 10.3
million women; the proportion of the urban population is 56%, the
population growth rate in 2010-2015 will be 1.7%, life expectancy will
be 74 years for men and 78 years for women.
Most of the
population is concentrated on the Mediterranean coast and along the
banks of the Euphrates. Population density - 103 people / km². Syria
guarantees free education from 6 to 11 years of age and is compulsory.
The 12 years of schooling consist of 6 years of elementary school, 3
years of general education and 3 more years of special training required
to enter university. Literacy among Syrians over the age of 15 is 86%
for men and 73.6% for women.
Syrian Arabs (including about 400,000 Palestinian refugees) make up
about 90% of the country's population.
The largest national
minority - the Kurds - makes up 9% of the population of Syria. Most
Kurds live in the north of the country in Western (Syrian) Kurdistan,
many still use the Kurdish language. There are also Kurdish communities
in all major cities.
The third largest ethnic group in the
country are the Syrian Turkmens (Turcomans), who make up 7% of the
population of Syria.
The Circassians are the descendants of the
Muhajirs, migrants from the Caucasus, and are mainly engaged in cattle
breeding and agriculture. Before the Yom Kippur War and the destruction
of the city of Quneitra, half of the Circassians lived in the
governorate of Quneitra; many of them moved to Damascus.
There
are also large communities of Armenians and Assyrians in the country.
Syrian Arabs (including about 400,000 Palestinian refugees) make up
about 90% of the country's population.
The largest national
minority - the Kurds - makes up 9% of the population of Syria. Most
Kurds live in the north of the country in Western (Syrian) Kurdistan,
many still use the Kurdish language. There are also Kurdish communities
in all major cities.
The third largest ethnic group in the
country are the Syrian Turkmens (Turcomans), who make up 7% of the
population of Syria.
The Circassians are the descendants of the
Muhajirs, migrants from the Caucasus, and are mainly engaged in cattle
breeding and agriculture. Before the Yom Kippur War and the destruction
of the city of Quneitra, half of the Circassians lived in the
governorate of Quneitra; many of them moved to Damascus.
There
are also large communities of Armenians and Assyrians in the country.
The share of Christians in 2010 was estimated at 5% - 6% of the
population. Throughout the 20th century, the proportion of Christians in
the total population of the country has steadily declined - from 16% at
the beginning of the century to 7.8% in 2000. This was due to both the
higher natural increase among Muslims and the significant emigration of
Christians to North and South America and the wealthier countries of the
Persian Gulf. The number of Catholics in 2010 was estimated at 430
thousand people. Most of them are believers of the five Eastern Catholic
churches (Melkites, Syro-Catholics, Maronites, Armenian Catholics and
Chaldean Catholics). The Orthodox are represented by the Antiochian
Orthodox Church (260,000, 2010). There are also many supporters of the
ancient Eastern churches in the country - the Syrian Orthodox Church
(195 thousand), the Armenian Apostolic Church (150 thousand) and the
Assyrian Church of the East (70 thousand). Approximately half of the
Protestants (40 thousand) are Reformed, the rest are believers of the
Anglican, Perfectionist, Baptist and Pentecostal communities.
In
2011, the Yezidi community in Syria numbered 80,000 people. In addition
to the above, there are very small groups of supporters of the Baha'i
faith, Zoroastrians and Jews in the country.
The official and most widely spoken language is Arabic.
In the
northern regions of the country, the Kurdish language is often used.
The most common languages also include Turkmen, Adyghe
(Circassian) and Armenian. In some areas there are various dialects of
Aramaic. Among foreign languages, the most popular are English and
Russian, which since 2014 has been gradually introduced into secondary
schools in the Damascus-controlled western part of the country as a
subject starting from the 7th grade. By the beginning of the 21st
century, at least 35 thousand specialists lived in Syria who had ever
studied in Russian in the USSR and in the CIS countries. French was
quite popular in Syria during the period between the two world wars,
when the country was ruled by France. However, since then, Russian has
significantly supplanted French as a second foreign language: only one
French school remains in the country in Damascus, and the number of
active Francophones in Syria does not exceed 5,000 as of 2014.
As one of the oldest states in the world, Syria has become the cradle
of many civilizations and cultures. In Syria, the Ugaritic cuneiform was
born and one of the first forms of writing - Phoenician (XIV century
BC). Syrian scientists and artists made a significant contribution to
the development of Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine cultures. Among
them: the scientist Antiochus of Ascalon, the writer Lucian from
Samosata, the historians Herodian, Ammianus Marcellinus, John Malala,
John of Ephesus, Yeshu Stylite, Yahya of Antioch, Michael the Syrian.
Also known are Christian theologians Paul of Samosata, John Chrysostom,
Ephraim the Syrian, John of Damascus.
In the 12th century, the
famous warrior and writer Usama ibn Munkiz lived and worked in Syria,
the author of the autobiographical chronicle The Book of Edification,
the most valuable source on the history of the Crusades.
The
learned deacon Pavel from Aleppo (Bulos ibn Makarius az-Zaim
al-Khalebi), having visited the Muscovite state in 1654-1656, described
in detail in his book “Journey of Patriarch Macarius of Antioch to
Russia” the everyday culture, folk customs and religious rites of
Russian and Ukrainians, as well as the foreign policy of Tsar Alexei
Mikhailovich and the church reforms of Patriarch Nikon.
The
capital of Syria - the city of Damascus - is one of the world's
historical centers for the production of bladed weapons, the birthplace
of the famous "Damascus steel".
The Syrians have made a
significant contribution to the development of Arabic literature,
especially poetry, and music. Syrian writers of the 19th century, many
of whom later immigrated to Egypt, made a decisive contribution to the
revival of Arab culture (a kind of "analog" of the Renaissance in Europe
- Nahda). The most famous Syrian writers of the 20th century, who made
the largest contribution to pan-Arab culture, include Adonis, Gada
al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani, Ulfat Idilbi, Hanna Mina and Zakaria Tamer.
Cinema in Syria is not very developed. On average, the Syrian
National Film Organization releases 1-2 films a year. Among the famous
directors are Amirali Omar, Osama Mohammed and Abdel Hamid, Abdul Razzak
Ghanem (Abu Ghanem) and others. Many Syrian filmmakers work abroad.
Nevertheless, in the 1970s, Syrian-made serials were popular in the Arab
world.
Together with the Syrian film studio "Ganem-Film" feature
films were shot in the USSR and Russia: "Zagon" (1987), "The Last Night
of Scheherazade" (1987), "Richard the Lionheart" (1992), "Destroy the
Thirtieth!" (1992), "Angels of Death" (1993), "Tragedy of the Century"
(1993), "The Great Commander Georgy Zhukov" (1995), etc.
In
modern Syrian society, special attention is paid to the institution of
the family and religion, as well as education.
The modern life of
Syria is closely intertwined with ancient traditions. Thus, in the old
quarters of Damascus, Aleppo and other Syrian cities, living quarters
are preserved, located around one or more courtyards, as a rule, with a
fountain in the center, with citrus orchards, vines and flowers. Outside
of large cities, residential areas are often combined into small towns.
Buildings in such areas are mostly very old (often hundreds of years
old) and are constantly passed down from generation to generation.
From 2000 to 2008, the number of Internet users in Syria grew from
30,000 to 1 million. However, the authorities block internet users from
accessing sites such as YouTube, Blogspot and Facebook, as well as
Kurdish and Islamist party sites. Against the background of other Arab
countries, multi-server instant messaging networks, for example, based
on the XMPP protocol, have gained extraordinary popularity. Due to the
peculiarities of the behavior of the Syrians in this network, many nodes
completely block the input of the Arabic alphabet.
Prior to Syria's independence, more than 90% of its population was
illiterate. In 1950, free and compulsory primary education was
introduced. Before the start of the civil war in Syria, there were about
10 thousand primary and more than 2.5 thousand secondary schools; 267
vocational schools (including 77 industrial, 65 commercial, 18
agricultural and veterinary, and 107 women's); 4 universities.
Textbooks in secondary schools (under the rule of Bashar al-Assad) are
issued free of charge up to and including grade 9.
Damascus
University was founded in 1903. It is the leading institution of higher
education in the country. The second most important is the university in
Aleppo, founded in 1946 as an engineering faculty of Damascus
University, but in 1960 became an independent educational institution.
In 1971, the University of Tishrin (Teshrin) was established in Latakia.
The youngest university founded in Homs is Al-Baath University. In
addition, a large number of Syrians receive higher education abroad,
mainly in Russia and France.
Syria has free public health care. There are about 300 hospitals in
the country, and there are about 900 inhabitants per doctor. In
addition, civil servants are entitled to compensation (up to 100%) of
private medical costs, provided that these medical services are provided
in Syria.
Syrian Minister of Health Abd-Assalam An-Naib noted in
2014 that in the field of medicine, Syria occupied one of the first
places in the region. There were 49 polyclinics in the country's
healthcare system, and the population was fully provided with medicines
(72 drug production enterprises functioned, up to 97% of the population
was provided with national medicines), complex operations were
performed, including heart and kidney transplantation, which, according
to the minister, made possible thanks to the experience adopted from the
Soviet Union. At present, the Syrian healthcare system has suffered
great damage.
Pension provision
Men retire at 60. In the event
of the death of a pensioner, his pension is received by the widow and
children, while sons receive it until they reach adulthood, and
daughters until they get married. If the daughter could not get married,
then she receives a pension throughout her life.
State television and radio company - ORTAS (fr. Organisme de la Radio-Télévision Arabe Syrienne, Arabic. الهيئة العامة للإذاعة والتلفزيون - “General Directorate of Radio Broadcasting and Television”), which includes the 1st (launched in 126) and 126 (launched in 1985), Radio Damascus (Arabic إذاعة دمشق), Voice of the People (Arabic صوت الشعب) and Voice of Youth (Arabic صوت الشباب).
The supreme commander of the armed forces is the president
of the country. Military service in the Syrian army is carried out by
conscription. Young men are drafted into the army for 2 years upon
reaching the draft age (18 years) and only on condition that the young
man has at least one brother. Otherwise, he is declared the breadwinner
of the family and is not subject to conscription.
The total
number of armed forces during the years of the civil war has
significantly decreased and is about 130 thousand people (15th place in
the world). About 14,000 Syrian troops were in Lebanese territory before
Syria withdrew its foreign contingent in April 2005 (introduced at the
request of the Lebanese leadership). The collapse of the Soviet Union,
which was the main military-technical partner of Syria, significantly
worsened the position of the Syrian army. From the 1990s to the present,
Syria has been purchasing weapons from China and North Korea. Russia is
the main supplier of repair equipment and spare parts, as well as the
main political partner. The country also receives financial assistance
from the Arab states of the Persian Gulf as payment for its
participation in the operation against Iraq. In addition to this, Syria
is conducting independent research in the field of weapons.
On
September 30, 2015, Russian President V.V. Putin ordered the use of the
Russian Aerospace Forces in Syria as support for President Bashar
al-Assad in the war against the armed opposition and ISIS.
The
armed forces include the army, air force, navy and air defense forces.