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Nalanda an ancient Archeological site situated in Nalanda District in India, 88 km South East of Patna. Nalanda Archaeological Site was an important commercial and religious center starting with the 5th century AD during reign of Sakraditya (ruler identified as Kumara Gupta I or Kumara Gupta II) and lasted until 1193 when it was sacked by a Turk ruler Bakhtiyar Khilju. In his attempt to wipe out Buddhism from region he burned many Buddhist monasteries and many of the monks. Nalanda did not entirely cease its existence. A small community of Buddhist monks still lived among ruins of the former city, but it went in significant decline from that point on and was eventually abandoned.
Nalanda Mahavihara (often called Nalanda University),
located near modern-day Rajgir (formerly in ancient Magadha, Bihar,
India), was one of the most prominent Buddhist monastic and scholastic
institutions in the ancient world. It operated as a major center of
learning for nearly 800–1,000 years (primarily from the 5th century CE
to around the 13th–14th centuries CE) and is recognized by UNESCO as a
World Heritage Site (inscribed 2016) for its role in the organized
transmission of knowledge, the evolution of Buddhism, monastic
traditions, architecture, and pedagogy that influenced institutions
across South and Southeast Asia.
The site covers the excavated
remains of viharas (residential-cum-scholastic monasteries),
chaityas/temples, stupas, and other structures over about 23 hectares
(core zone), demonstrating planned axial layout (north-south passage
separating viharas and temples), multi-layered construction showing
centuries of evolution, and artistic features in stucco, stone, and
metal (Buddha images, Bodhisattvas, Jataka scenes, Hindu deities
indicating syncretism).
Origins trace back to a region with deep
Buddhist associations: The Buddha and Mahavira are traditionally said to
have visited or meditated nearby; Shariputra (a chief disciple of the
Buddha) was born and attained nirvana there. However, the institutional
mahavihara itself dates to around 427 CE, founded by Gupta emperor
Kumaragupta I (also called Shakraditya). A seal identifies him as
founder of a sangharama (monastery). Earlier settlement evidence exists
nearby (c. 1200 BCE), and Ashokan-era activity is noted regionally, but
no pre-5th century monuments at the exact site; Faxian (early 5th
century visitor) did not mention it.
The Guptas (5th–6th centuries)
were primary early patrons, expanding it with additional monasteries and
temples. Successors like Budhagupta, Tathagatagupta, Baladitya, and
Vajra contributed. Patronage was diverse—even non-Buddhist donors (seals
with Lakshmi, Ganesha, Shivalinga). It survived early attacks, e.g., by
the Huns under Mihirakula (5th century), with rebuilding.
Emperor
Harsha (Pushyabhuti dynasty, r. 606–647 CE) provided major support,
granting revenue from 100–200 villages (supporting daily supplies for
monks), building viharas, and temples for Buddha, Surya, and Shiva.
Chinese traveler Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang, 637–642 CE) described its
grandeur during this peak: richly adorned towers, observatories, 10
pools for bathing, strict routines (baths before meals, bell signals),
consensus-based governance via a Vihārapāla officer, and merit-based
admission via rigorous oral exams/interviews. Estimates (possibly
exaggerated) reached ~10,000 students (mostly monks) and 1,510–2,000
teachers/faculty at peak; Xuanzang noted teachers specializing in 20,
30, or 50 collections of sutras/shastras.
The Pala Empire (8th–12th
centuries) continued and intensified patronage, favoring Mahayana and
later Vajrayana Buddhism. Kings like Dharmapala and Devapala endowed
lands; an inscription records the Shailendra king Balaputradeva of
Sumatra building a monastery and endowing villages. Nalanda influenced
(and competed with) nearby institutions like Odantapuri and
Vikramashila.
Curriculum was multidisciplinary and rigorous: Core was
Buddhist philosophy (Mahayana schools like Madhyamaka, Yogachara;
Hinayana/Nikaya traditions; later Vajrayana), alongside Vedas, grammar
(Sanskrit/Pali), logic (hetuvidya/Pramana, advanced by Dignaga,
Dharmakirti), medicine (Ayurveda), mathematics, astronomy, alchemy,
literature, law, and debate (central to pedagogy—"Medieval School of
Discussion and Logic"). Students memorized, debated, and copied texts.
It was residential; monks followed Vinaya rules. While often called the
"world's first residential university," scholars note it's imprecise
compared to modern universities—it was primarily a Buddhist mahavihara
emphasizing monastic education, though it embraced diverse knowledge
systems merit-based.
Famous scholars (faculty/alumni): Nagarjuna
(Shunyata/Madhyamaka), Aryadeva, Asanga and Vasubandhu (Yogachara),
Dignaga and Dharmakirti (logic), Chandrakirti, Shantideva
(Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra), Dharmapala, Shilabhadra (Xuanzang's teacher,
mastered 50 collections), Śāntarakṣita, Kamalaśīla. Influences reached
Tibet (Thonmi Sambhota), Korea, etc.
Key visitors/travelers provided
vivid accounts: Xuanzang (studied ~5 years, carried 657 texts back to
China, translated them; praised its scale and scholarship). Yijing
(673–695 CE, ~10 years, described 8 viharas with ~300 cells each, daily
rituals, ~200 villages' revenue support; carried 400 texts). Others from
Korea, Japan, Indonesia, Tibet.
The library, Dharmaganja ("Piety
Mart"), was legendary: three multi-storeyed buildings (Ratnasagara,
Ratnodadhi—9 storeys, Ratnaranjaka) housing hundreds of thousands (some
claims of 9 million) of palm-leaf/bark manuscripts on Buddhism,
philosophy, sciences, etc. Texts were copied, composed (e.g., by
Dharmakirti, Shantideva), and classified systematically. Manuscripts
were added upon scholars' deaths; it influenced knowledge transmission
to East Asia.
Decline set in gradually due to shifting patronage,
rise of competing monasteries, possible internal factors, and repeated
attacks (e.g., Gauda king of Bengal in 8th century). The final major
destruction occurred around 1193–1200 CE when Turko-Afghan general
Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khilji (under Qutb-ud-din Aibak/Delhi Sultanate
forces) sacked it during raids into Bihar/Bengal. Persian chronicler
Minhaj-i-Siraj (Tabakat-i-Nasiri) describes the attack on a major
monastery (identified as Nalanda or nearby Odantapuri); fires (from
burning manuscripts) reportedly burned for 3 months; monks were killed
or fled (some to Tibet/Nepal). Archaeological evidence includes ash
layers from arson. Tibetan accounts (Dharmasvamin, 1234–35 CE;
Taranatha) confirm devastation, abandonment, and minimal survival (e.g.,
70–80 monks with one aged teacher under local patronage into 13th
century). It lingered in reduced form possibly to ~1400 CE but never
recovered fully. Debates exist on exact identification and contributory
factors (earlier decline, misattributions), but Khilji's raid is the
consensus catastrophic end.
Archaeology: Rediscovered in the 19th
century (Francis Buchanan-Hamilton 1811–12, Alexander Cunningham
1861–62). Systematic ASI excavations 1915–1937 and later (Spooner,
Sastri, Page, Ghosh et al.) uncovered 11 viharas, 6–14 temples (notably
multi-layered Temple/Sariputta Stupa No. 3 with stucco sculptures),
sculptures, seals, inscriptions, coins, murals, metal artifacts. Managed
by ASI; public site.
Modern revival: A new Nalanda University was
proposed (A.P.J. Abdul Kalam 2006, East Asia Summit support),
established by Indian Parliament Act 2010 (international, with East
Asian partners), opened 2014 near Rajgir on 455 acres (eco-friendly
campus designed by B.V. Doshi). It aims to revive the spirit of
multidisciplinary, residential learning with global scholars, focusing
on ecology, history, languages, peace studies, etc. Nava Nalanda
Mahavihara (1951) also preserves Pali/Buddhist studies.
Nalanda's
legacy includes pioneering organized residential higher learning,
merit-based international scholarship (attracting students from China,
Tibet, Korea, Japan, SE Asia), transmission of Buddhism/philosophy/texts
across Asia, advancements in logic/medicine/math/astronomy, and
architectural/pedagogical models influencing later viharas and
universities. Its destruction symbolizes immense knowledge loss but also
enduring inspiration for revival and global education.
Nalanda Mahavihara (also called Nalanda University
ruins) in Bihar, India, is a major UNESCO World Heritage Site (inscribed
2016) representing the archaeological remains of one of the world's
earliest residential universities and Buddhist monastic centers. Active
primarily from the 5th to 12th/13th centuries CE (with possible earlier
roots to the 3rd century BCE), the site covers about 23 hectares in the
property area, with excavated remains spanning roughly 12 hectares (488
m north-south by 244 m east-west). It includes 11 viharas (monasteries),
6–14 temples/chaityas (with smaller shrines and votive structures),
stupas, and artifacts in stucco, stone, and metal.
The site
demonstrates advanced axial planning along a north-south axis, with a
central 30 m (100 ft) wide passage. Temples and stupas are primarily on
the western side, monasteries on the eastern side, forming an ordered
monastic-scholarly complex. The layout evolved from informal groupings
around stupa-chaitya cores to a more standardized linear arrangement
reflecting changes in Buddhist practices (e.g., Mahayana to Vajrayana
influences). Many structures show multiple rebuilding phases, with newer
constructions erected atop ruins of earlier ones, often after fires or
decay.
Primary construction material is baked red bricks
(standardized sizes, e.g., around 24x12x5 inches or similar variations),
laid in courses with mud mortar or sometimes gypsum/lime elements.
Foundations often used rubble bases; walls were thick for multi-story
support. Wooden beams and pillars (now decayed) supported upper floors
and roofs (likely flat or slightly sloped). Drainage systems (channels
emptying eastward), wells, and staircases were integrated for
functionality. Evidence of metal casting (furnaces with slag) exists,
and some iron clamps repaired panels. Stucco (lime-plaster with molded
reliefs) was widely used for decoration, alongside stone carvings
(sandstone, basalt). Layers of construction reveal evolutionary
techniques, with later phases sometimes incorporating more ornate
elements.
Monastery (Vihara) Architecture
Viharas are
quadrangular in plan, typically rectangular, with a central open
courtyard surrounded by a verandah/corridor, enclosed by an outer row of
monk cells (small rooms for living, study, and meditation). Most are 2–3
stories high originally (inferred from foundations, wall heights, and
historical accounts), with cells opening onto the verandah facing the
courtyard. A central shrine/chapel often faces the entrance (usually
west-facing for most monasteries). Staircases are commonly in the
southwest corner; drains run eastward from the courtyard. Cells include
niches/alcoves for lamps, books, or belongings. Layouts support communal
living, lectures, and debate, with hierarchical elements (larger cells
for senior monks).
Monastery 1: Oldest and most significant, with
up to nine construction layers/phases. Featured a colossal seated Buddha
statue; lower levels sponsored by Srivijayan king Balaputradeva (9th
century, Pala period). Complex rectangular plan with central court.
Monasteries 1A/1B and others (2–11): Similar standardized plans
(exceptions to strict west-facing). Multiple phases, fire damage
evidence in some. Central courtyards facilitated teaching; cells
arranged symmetrically around verandahs. Some had imposing central
shrines (e.g., Monastery 3 with west-facing shrine and front court). One
monastery had a unique door feature. Monastery 12 is known mainly from
floor plans.
Temple, Stupa, and Chaitya Architecture
Temples
(chaityas) evolved from early stupa-centric designs to temple-like forms
with quincunxial (fivefold: central shrine + four corner shrines/towers)
arrangements, influencing later regional Buddhist architecture. They are
brick-built, often multi-phased, with shrine chambers, pedestals for
statues, and surrounding votive stupas.
Temple 3
(Sariputta/Sariputra Stupa): Most imposing and iconic structure, at the
southern end. Originally small, enlarged in at least seven successive
phases (5th layer best preserved). Features four corner towers (three
surviving/exposed), monumental staircase with Gupta-era stucco panels
depicting Buddha life scenes, Bodhisattvas, and Jataka tales. Surrounded
by numerous votive stupas (some with inscribed bricks containing
Buddhist texts). Upper shrine chamber had a Buddha statue pedestal.
Hemispherical dome on high base, with chhatra (umbrella) finial
remnants; railings and toranas (gateways) with carvings in some stupas.
Temple 2: Located east of the main enclosure; notable for 211 sculptured
panels (religious/secular: Buddhist figures, Hindu deities like
Shiva-Parvati/Kartikeya, amorous couples, everyday scenes, Gajalakshmi,
mythical creatures). Panels possibly added later; shows syncretic
elements. Associated with metal-casting furnace.
Other temples (e.g.,
13, 14, Sarai Mound temple): Multi-storied potential (one suggested 24
m/80 ft high statue); east-facing examples; mural fragments; large
Buddha pedestals. Smaller shrines and votive stupas cluster around major
structures.
Decorative Elements, Sculptures, and Artifacts
Abundant stucco (molded reliefs of Jatakas, Buddha in various mudras,
Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Tara, Manjushri), stone sculptures
(Buddha, Vajrapani, Hindu deities including
Vishnu/Shiva/Ganesha/Mahishasuramardini, Jain Tirthankara), metal (gilt
copper Buddha/Maitreya, bronze figures), and inscriptions (copper
plates, seals, basalt slabs recording donations, kings like Devapala,
Mahipala, restorations). Murals (fragments preserved). Iconography shows
transitions from early Buddhist to Vajrayana and syncretic influences.
Phases of Development and Significance
Early (3rd BCE–4th CE):
Possible stupa-chaitya origins.
Gupta (5th–6th/7th CE, Kumaragupta I
onward): Major brick construction, stucco artistry, Temple 3 initial
layers.
Post-Gupta/Harsha (7th CE): Expansions, viharas/temples.
Pala (8th–12th CE): Peak, Vajrayana elements, restorations after fires,
royal patronage (e.g., Balaputradeva inscription), additions like ornate
panels.
Decline (~1200 CE): Destruction by Bakhtiyar Khilji (fire
layers evident); partial activity into 13th CE.
Nalanda's
architecture pioneered integrated residential-educational monastic
design (cells + courtyards + shrines + lecture spaces), influenced later
mahaviharas (Vikramshila, Odantapuri) and Asian Buddhist architecture
(e.g., in Tibet, Southeast Asia). Its brick techniques, planning, and
evolution from austere to ornate forms highlight ancient Indian
engineering sophistication, drainage, multi-story capability, and
adaptation to scholarly life.