Andalusia is a Spanish autonomous community recognized as a
historical nationality by its Statute of Autonomy , made up of eight
provinces: Almería , Cádiz , Córdoba , Granada , Huelva , Jaén ,
Málaga and Seville. Its capital and most populous city is Seville ,
seat of the Government Council of the Junta de Andalucía , the
Parliament and the Presidency of the Junta de Andalucía. The
headquarters of theSuperior Court of Justice of Andalusia is located
in Granada .
It is the most populous autonomous community in
the country (8,538,376 inhabitants in 2021) and the second largest (
87,599 km² ) —after Castilla y León— . It is located in the southern
part of the Iberian Peninsula ; bordering to the west with Portugal
, to the north with the autonomous communities of Extremadura (
Badajoz ) and Castilla-La Mancha ( Ciudad Real ) and ( Albacete ),
to the east with the Region of Murcia , to the southwest with the
Atlantic Ocean and to the south with the Mediterranean sea and
Gibraltar. Through the Strait of Gibraltar , separated by 14 km at
its narrowest, meet Morocco and Ceuta on the African continent . In
1981 it became an autonomous community, under the provisions of the
second article of the Spanish Constitution of 1978 , which
recognizes and guarantees the right to autonomy of the Spanish
nationalities and regions. The process of political autonomy was
carried out through the restrictive procedure expressed in article
151 of the Constitution, after the mass demonstrations of December
4, 1977 and the referendum of February 28, 1980, where the
Andalusian peopleHe expressed his desire to be at the forefront of
the aspirations for self-government at the highest level in all the
peoples of Spain. Andalusia was therefore the only Community that
had a specific source of legitimacy in its path of access to
autonomy expressed at the ballot box by means of a referendum.
In the articles of the autonomous statute, Andalusia is granted
the status of « historical nationality », reflecting the political
identity of the Andalusian people as a result of its historical and
cultural singularity. In the previous statute, the Autonomy Statute
of 1981 or the Carmona Statute , it was defined as "nationality".
The geographical framework is one of the elements that gives
Andalusia its own uniqueness and personality . From a geographical
point of view, three large environmental areas can be distinguished,
formed by the interaction of the different physical factors that
affect the natural environment: Sierra Morena —which separates
Andalusia from the Meseta— , the Betic systems and the Betic
depression that individualize Upper Andalusia from Lower Andalusia .
The history of Andalusia is the result of a complex process in
which different cultures and peoples merge over time, such as the
Iberian , the Phoenician , the Carthaginian , the Roman , the
Byzantine , the Andalusian , the Sephardic , the Gypsy and Spanish ,
which have given rise to the formation of Andalusian identity and
culture .
At present, the economy of Andalusia is marked by
the disadvantage of the region with respect to the Spanish and
European global frameworks due to the late arrival of the industrial
revolution , further hampered by the peripheral situation that
Andalusia adopted in international economic circuits. . This
resulted in a lower impact of the industrial sector on the economy,
a great relative weight of agriculture and a hypertrophy of the
services sector.
1 Seville
2 Almería
3 Cádiz
4 Córdoba
5 Granada
6
Huelva
7 Jaén
8 Málaga
9 Marbella
With an area of 87,000 km² and 8.4 million inhabitants (as of
2016), the semi-autonomous region of Andalusia is about as large
and populous as Austria. However, the gross domestic product is
only a third as high as that of the Alpine Republic, and the
unemployment rate is many times higher (27% in the first quarter
of 2017). Despite the large income from tourism, Andalusia is
the second poorest region in Spain after Extremadura.
The
first settlers with a highly developed culture in this region
were the Phoenicians from Tyre, who lived in the 12th to 8th
centuries BC. founded colonies such as Cádiz (Gadir), Almuñécar
(Sexi) and Málaga (Malaka). In fact, Cadiz is the oldest
continuously inhabited city in Western Europe. In the 7th
century these colonies came under the dominance of Carthage,
also founded by Phoenicians. Carthaginian rule ceased around 206
BC after the Second Punic War. by that of the Roman Empire,
which established the province (Hispania) of Baetica here. From
this came u. a. the Roman emperors Trajan and (probably)
Hadrian. During the fall of Rome in the 5th century AD, the
region was conquered first by the Vandals and then by the
Visigoths
The name Andalusia is derived from al-Andalus,
the Arabic name for the once Islamic southern part of the
Iberian Peninsula, which had its centers in Seville, Cordoba and
Granada, but during its heyday stretched far beyond present-day
Andalusia to Toledo and Coimbra and Zaragoza handed. Arab
expansion into southern Spain began in 711. In the Emirate of
Granada, the Muslim Moors were able to hold out until the
conclusion of the Reconquista in 1492, so this was the part of
Spain that had been under Islamic influence the longest. Córdoba
in particular was one of the most important cultural centers in
the entire Mediterranean region at that time and radiated both
to Western Europe and to the Islamic world. Significant
innovations in mathematics, astronomy and medicine made their
way to Europe from Islamic Andalusia. The Andalusian
philosophers and polymaths Averroës (Ibn Ruschd) and Maimonides
were among the most important thinkers of their time and also
influenced modern Western philosophy. Jews and Christians were
tolerated if they paid a poll tax. After 1492 all Jews and
Muslims had only the choice between flight, conversion and
death. Valuable Arabic manuscripts were destroyed, free thought
was suppressed by the Inquisition.
Today the region is
famous for bullfighting, flamenco, olive oil and sherry.
Geographically, Andalusia is extremely varied: not far from the
hot and sun-kissed coasts rises the Sierra Nevada with its
mountains that are snow-covered almost all year round. Andalusia
borders Portugal to the west, the regions of Extremadura and
Castile-La Mancha to the north, the Murcia region to the east
and the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic to the south. The
British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar is also on the south
coast. The capital of the region is Seville. Traditional
architecturally, the small whitewashed houses, which are often
decorated with azulejos (white-blue tiles), dominate here.
Larger residential units have their own patio (courtyard).
The language is Spanish, albeit in rural regions with a broad dialect, which is sometimes not understandable even for native speakers from other regions. (Comparable in German, for example, with Lower Bavarian.) Some basic knowledge of Spanish is useful, especially if you want to move outside of the tourist areas (in the latter you can also get by with English or German). A distinctive feature of the Andalusian dialect is the omission of the 's' at the end of some words, e.g. For example, Bueno Dia is said here instead of Buenos Dias for 'good morning' or do instead of dos for 'two'.
By plane
By far the largest airport in the region is Málaga
Airport (IATA: AGP), which can be reached directly from
German-speaking countries with Lufthansa, Swiss, easyJet,
Eurowings, Norwegian, Ryanair, Vueling or Condor. Shuttle buses
run from Málaga Airport directly to the resorts of the Costa del
Sól. There are also regular bus connections to Granada, Almería,
Seville, Córdoba and Jaen.
The second largest airport is
Seville Airport (IATA: SVQ), which is served by Lufthansa,
Ryanair, easyJet and Edelweiss Air, among others. The smaller
airport of Jerez de la Frontera (IATA: XRY) follows in third
place, but it also has a number of direct connections with
Germany and Switzerland (Ryanair, seasonally also Condor, TUI
fly, Eurowings, Helvetic Airways, Edelweiss Air and Luxair ).
Granada-Jaén Airport (IATA: GRX), which can only be reached from
D/A/CH by connecting flights, plays a subordinate role.
The flight time from Frankfurt am Main is about 3 hours each
way.
By train
The AVE high-speed train takes you from
Madrid to Córdoba in 1 hour 45 minutes and to Seville or Málaga
in 2½ hours. There is also a direct AVE connection from
Barcelona to Seville (5½ hours) and Málaga (5:45) twice a day,
via Córdoba (4:40).
As a result of the Spanish railway
network, which is heavily geared towards the center of Madrid,
there has not yet been a direct connection from the neighboring
region of Murcia or from neighboring Portugal. A regional train
runs only once a day between Extremadura and Andalusia
(Mérida–Seville in 3 hours 40 minutes). The traditional night
train (trenhotel) "Alhambra" from Barcelona to Granada has been
discontinued since 2015 - officially only temporarily due to
construction work, but it is doubtful whether operations will
ever resume.
Railway enthusiasts can of course also take
the train all the way from Germany or Switzerland to Andalusia.
To do this, you have to change trains several times (depending
on the connection in Paris, Lyon, Avignon, Montpellier,
Perpignan, Barcelona and/or Madrid). B. from Basel at least 15
hours, from Frankfurt a. M. or Cologne over 24 hours on the
road. You can make the trip a little more relaxed by including
one or more stages along the way, or at least covering the
Paris-Perpignan section on a night train with couchette cars.
By bus
Buses connect Andalusia with southern Portugal
(e.g. Faro-Seville in approx. 3 hours), Extremadura (e.g.
Mérida-Seville in 2 hours) and the Spanish east coast (e.g.
Alicante-Granada in about 5 hours). There are also numerous
long-distance bus services from Madrid to Andalusia, which are
much slower than competing high-speed trains (e.g. Madrid to
Córdoba takes over 4 hours), but are usually significantly
cheaper.
Three times a week, Eurolines offers a direct
long-distance bus connection from Basel, Zurich, Berne and
Freiburg to Jaen, Granada, Motril and Málaga or to Seville
(journey time from Berne to Granada 28 hours).
In the
street
Motorways lead to Andalusia from all neighboring
regions: the A-4 from Madrid, the A-7 or AP-7 from Murcia and
Alicante, the A-49 from Faro/Portugal and the A-66 from
Extremadura. The A-7 (Autovía) and AP-7 (Autopista) run largely
parallel, with the former being toll-free and the latter subject
to a toll, but also better developed.
By car
A rental car is highly recommended in Andalusia,
especially if you want to see the sights away from the coast.
(Those who only want to look at the large metropolitan regions
are better advised to take the train and bus because of the
notorious parking problems there). For a small car the size of
an Opel Corsas or Ford Fiestas, you pay between €15 and €35 per
day, depending on where you book (online, on site, in a hotel or
with a tour operator) and what insurance is included. The
exclusion of a deductible in the fully comprehensive insurance
is definitely recommended with the Spanish parking methods, and
can be obtained from most providers without great additional
costs. In Spain, however, damage to tyres, mirrors and glass is
not covered by comprehensive insurance. This circumstance means
that advance bookings in particular are only tried on site to
sell additional insurance (of 60-70€/2 weeks), sometimes with
considerable pressure. In any case, the risk of such damage is
no greater in Spain than anywhere else in the world. Another
popular "pitfall", especially with low-cost providers, is the
full-to-empty rule. Here the customer is billed for the first
tank filling at a clearly exorbitant price, but he can return it
with an empty tank, which of course rarely succeeds (estimated
additional costs depending on the mastery in the precise
"emptying" of the tank 30-50 €).
Finding a parking space
is difficult in the big cities, there are usually only parking
spaces at the side of the road, at the sights or in the
multi-storey car park. The fees in the parking garage are
settled in minutes. An hour in the parking garage, which is
particularly recommended in hot temperatures, costs between €1
and €2, depending on the region.
The big cities like
Córdoba, Seville, Cádiz, Málaga or Almería are connected via
autovias that do not cost a toll. Exceptions are the A4
Seville-Cádiz motorway and the AP7 Málaga-Gibraltar coastal
motorway (which runs parallel to the A7 toll-free expressway),
which are subject to tolls. The route from Málaga to Gibraltar
costs (as of September 2013) around €10 and saves around 45
minutes each way. Navigation using maps is possible, but a
navigation system is recommended, especially in the cities.
Therefore, before the start of your holiday, you should check
whether any existing navigation system for German road traffic
also contains maps of Spain or Andalusia.
By bus
There
is a fairly dense network of bus connections between the
provincial capitals, which are mostly operated by different
providers. ALSA is the undisputed market leader. All major
cities have bus stations (estación de autobuses) from which
these connections depart, often with their own websites. In the
hinterland, on the other hand, the regular buses are still
managed by local companies, whose travel times are based on the
needs of the local working population and rarely on tourist
requirements and which are not always easy to find out.
In recent years, the state government Junta de Andalucía has
combined this fragmented system of individual entrepreneurs into
transport associations (Consorzio de transportes), at least in
the regional vicinity of the provincial capitals, as is also
known in German cities. In the vicinity of these cities
(Almería, Cádiz, Alcegiras/Gibraltar, Granada, Seville, Córdoba,
Málaga, Jaén and Huelva) a sufficiently frequent and organized
system of bus and partly train or metro connections has emerged
that is also suitable for holidaymakers replace your own car. It
is often difficult for German holidaymakers to distinguish
between the ticket systems of the associations (consorzios) and
the systems of the individual members, which are still in force
separately, especially the local municipal transport companies.
The former are more expensive, but can be used to transfer
between the individual areas, the latter only apply to the
issuing companies, and they can still differentiate between
metro, city bus and tram. All information and signets of the
transport associations are based on the signal colors of the
Junta de Andalucia, green on a sandy yellow background.
It is to be hoped that this development will continue and that a
uniformly organized bus line system that will also be
comprehensible for foreigners will increasingly prevail in
Andalusia.
By train
Almost all major cities in
Andalusia are connected to each other and to central Spain via
the high-speed AVE network operated by the Spanish railway
company RENFE. In the metropolitan regions, suburban trains
(cercanias) connect the surrounding towns, mostly as part of the
transport associations described above. However, the network of
regional trains (MD/MR) to the areas beyond is rather thin and
tends to be thinned out rather than expanded.
Tren Al
Andalus
The Tren Al-Andalus is a luxury tourist train used by
RENFE that has been running six-day tours from Seville since
2012. These cost from €3030 per double compartment in 2019.
There is space for a maximum of 64 passengers in the five
restored sleeping cars (built before 1930). There are also two
dining cars and a saloon car. Driving is through Córdoba,
Granada and Jerez de la Frontera. Along the route there are
stops in Baeza, Úbeda, Ronda and Sanlúcar de Barrameda. A full
program of guided tours is organised. Since 2016 there have been
two round trips with a different route. Start and finish is
always Seville.
The place name "Andalusia" was introduced into the Spanish
language during the 13th century under the form "Andalusia."
This is the Castilianization of al-Andalusiya, an Arabic demonym
and adjective referring to al-Andalus, the name given to the
territories of the Iberian Peninsula under Islamic rule from 711
to 1492. Various etymologies have been proposed for this
toponym. The so-called Vandal thesis derives al-Andalus from
Vandalia or Vandalusia (land of the Vandals) and although it was
widely spread from the 16th century onwards, it does not
currently enjoy any scientific credit. The so-called Visigothic
thesis finds its etymological origin in the Visigothic name of
the ancient Roman province of Betica: *Landahlauts. The
Visigoths, upon occupying these lands, distributed them by
drawing lots; The prizes that fell to each of them and the
corresponding lands were called sortes Gothica, appearing in
written sources, all in Latin, as Gothica sors (singular) as a
designation of the Gothic kingdom as a whole. The corresponding
Gothic designation, *Landahlauts ("land of lots"), would be
transformed according to this thesis into al-Andalus. A third
thesis, the Atlantic thesis, explains the appearance of the
toponym al-Andalus as a corruption of the Latin Atlanticum.
Various sources such as the English Encyclopedia and scholars
such as Dietrich Schwanitz and Heinz Halm, reaffirm theories of
a toponym formed even before the Arab occupation. .
Regarding its use, the word "Andalusia" has not always referred
exactly to the territory today known as such. During the last
phases of the Christian Reconquest, this name was granted
exclusively to the south of the peninsula under Muslim rule,
subsequently remaining as the name of the last territory to be
reconquered. In the First General Chronicle of Alfonso X the
Wise, written in the second half of the 13th century, the term
Andalusia is used in three different meanings:
As a simple
translation of al-Andalus. The name of al-Andalus already
appears in traditions and Arabic poetry from the first period of
Islam before the conquest. It appears in these eastern sources
and in the first ones that narrate the conquest of Hispania as
the name of an island, Chazirat al-Andalus, or of a sea, Bahr
al-Andalus.
To designate the territories conquered by
Christians in the Guadalquivir valley and in the kingdoms of
Granada and Murcia. In fact, Alfonso
To name the lands
conquered by Christians in the Guadalquivir valley (Kingdoms of
Jaén, Córdoba and Seville). This third meaning would be the most
common during the Late Middle Ages and the Modern Age. From the
administrative point of view, the kingdom of Granada maintained
its name and uniqueness within the Andalusian context due, above
all, to its emblematic character as the culmination of the
Reconquista and for being the headquarters of the important
Royal Chancery of Granada. However, the fact that the conquest
and repopulation of said kingdom was carried out mainly by
Andalusians, meant that during the Modern Age the notion of
Andalusia was extended, in fact, to the set of the four
kingdoms, frequently called the "four kingdoms of Andalusia", at
least since the middle of the 18th century.
On occasions
and unofficially this territory has been called "Castilla la
Novísima" following the chronological order of the Reconquista,
after Castilla la Vieja and Castilla la Nueva.
The shield of Andalusia shows the figure of a young Hercules between the two columns of Hercules that tradition places in the Strait of Gibraltar, with an inscription at the foot of a legend that says: "Andalusia for itself, for Spain and Humanity." , on the background of an Andalusian flag. The two columns are closed by a semicircular arch with the Latin words Dominator Hercules Fundator, also on the background of the Andalusian flag.
The official flag of Andalusia is composed of three horizontal bands green, white and green, of equal size; On the central white band is its shield. It was created by Blas Infante and approved in the Ronda Assembly of 1918. Infante chose green as a symbol of hope and unity and white as a symbol of peace and dialogue. The choice of these colors is due to the fact that Blas Infante considered that they had been the most used throughout the history of the Andalusian territory. According to him, the banner of the Andalusian dynasty of the Umayyads was green and represented the call of the people. White, on the other hand, symbolized forgiveness among the Almohads, which in European heraldry is interpreted as parliament or peace. Other historical news justify the choice of flag colors. Andalusian nationalists call it Arbonaida, which means "white-green" in the Mozarabic language.
The anthem of Andalusia is a musical composition by José del
Castillo Díaz, director of the Municipal Band of Seville and
commonly known as Maestro Castillo with lyrics by Blas Infante.
The music is inspired by the Holy God, a popular religious song
that peasants and day laborers in some Andalusian regions sang
during the harvest in the provinces of Malaga, Seville and
Huelva. Blas Infante brought this song to the attention of
Maestro Castillo, who adapted and harmonized the melody. The
lyrics of the anthem appeal to Andalusians to mobilize and ask
for "land and freedom", through a process of agrarian reform and
a statute of political autonomy for Andalusia, within the
framework of Spain.
The Andalusian Parliament unanimously
approved in 1983 that, in the preamble of the Statute of
Autonomy for Andalusia, Blas Infante be recognized as "Father of
the Andalusian Homeland", a recognition that was revalidated in
the reform of said statute, subject to a popular referendum. on
February 18, 2007.
Andalusia Day is celebrated on February 28 and commemorates the
1980 referendum, which gave full autonomy to the Andalusian
community after a long struggle through the procedure stipulated
in article 151 of the Constitution for those communities that,
like the Andalusian , had not approved a statute of autonomy
during the Second Republic due to the outbreak of the Civil War.
The honorary title of Favorite Son of Andalusia is granted
by the Junta de Andalucía to those who are recognized for
exceptional merits that have benefited Andalusia, for their work
or scientific, social or political actions. It is the highest
distinction of the autonomous community.
One of the elements that gives uniqueness and personality to
Andalusia is its geographical setting. The Sevillian historian
Domínguez Ortiz summarizes this condition stating that:
[...]
we must look for the essence of Andalusia in its geographical
reality, on the one hand, and, on the other, in the
consciousness of its inhabitants. From a geographical point of
view, the set of southern lands is too broad and varied to
encompass them all in a unit. In reality there are not two, but
three Andalusias: the Sierra Morena, the Valley and the
Penibética [...]
These three large environmental units
will be the result of the conjunction of different physical
factors, where the relief plays a fundamental role.
Andalusia has an area of 87,268 km², which is equivalent to
17.3% of the Spanish territory, making it comparable to many
European countries, both in terms of its surface area and its
internal complexity. To the east and west it borders the
Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal
respectively, while to the north it does so with the Sierra
Morena, which separates it from the Meseta and to the south with
the Strait of Gibraltar, which separates it from the African
continent.
Andalusia is located at a latitude between 36º
and 38º44' N, in the warm-temperate zone of the Earth, giving
its climate very defining characteristics such as the bonanza of
its temperatures and the dryness of its summers. However, within
the broad framework defined by its limits there are great
internal contrasts. In this way, you go from the extensive
coastal plains of the Guadalquivir River—at sea level—to the
highest areas of the peninsula in the Sierra Nevada. Contrast
the dryness of the Tabernas desert with the natural park of the
Sierra de Grazalema, the rainiest in Spain. More significant, if
possible, is the transition from the snow-capped peaks of
Mulhacén to the subtropical coast of Granada, just 50 km away.
Andalusia falls entirely within the Mediterranean climatic
domain, characterized by the predominance of high summer
pressures (Azore anticyclone), which result in the typical
summer drought, sometimes broken by torrential rainfall and
torrid temperatures. In winter, tropical anticyclones move south
and allow the polar front to penetrate the Andalusian territory.
Instability increases and precipitation is concentrated in the
autumn, winter and spring periods. The temperatures are very
mild.
However, there is a great diversity of climatic
types in the different areas of Andalusia, creating great
richness and landscape contrasts that are increased by the
arrangement of the orogens and their location between two bodies
of water with very different characteristics.
Precipitation decreases from west to east, with the rainiest
point being the Sierra de Grazalema (with the historical maximum
annual rainfall recorded throughout the Iberian Peninsula and
Spain, in 1963: 4346 mm) and the least rainy in continental
Europe. (Cabo de Gata, 117 mm annually). The "humid Andalusia"
coincides with the highest points of the community, especially
the area of the Ronda mountain range and the Grazalema mountain
range. The Guadalquivir valley has average rainfall. In the
province of Almería is the Tabernas desert, the only desert in
Europe. Rainy days per year are around 75, dropping to 50 in the
most arid areas. Thus, in a large part of Andalusia there are
more than 300 days of sunshine per year, with Málaga and Almería
being the Spanish cities with the most hours of daylight, 8.54
on average per day, according to data from the INE (National
Institute of Statistics), which in 2017, accumulated 3820 hours
of sunshine in both.
The average annual temperature in
Andalusia is higher than 16 °C, with urban values ranging
between 18.5 °C in Málaga and 15.1 °C in Baeza. In much of the
Guadalquivir valley and the Mediterranean coast , the average is
around 18°. The coldest month is January (6.4 °C on average in
Granada) and the hottest is July or August (28.5 °C on average),
with Córdoba being the hottest capital followed by Seville.
The highest temperatures in Spain, the peninsula and Europe
are recorded in the Guadalquivir valley, with a historical
maximum of 46.9 °C in Córdoba and 46.8 °C in El Granado
(Huelva). according to the AEMET. Montoro recorded the maximum
temperature of 47.3 °C on July 13, 2017. Although there are data
from previous records, they are very doubtful because they were
measured with inadequate instruments. The mountains of Granada
and Jaén are those that register the lowest temperatures in the
entire south of the Iberian Peninsula. In the cold wave of
January 2005, –21 °C was reached in Santiago de la Espada (Jaén)
and –18 °C in Pradollano (Granada). Sierra Nevada has the lowest
average annual temperature in the south of the peninsula (3.9 °C
in Pradollano) and its peaks remain snowy most of the year.
The relief is one of the main factors that shapes the natural
environment. The mountain alignments and their arrangement have
a special impact on the configuration of the climate, the river
network, the soils and their erosion, the bioclimatic floors and
will even have an influence on the way natural resources are
used.
The Andalusian relief is characterized by the
strong contrast in altitude and slope. Between its borders are
the highest elevations of the Iberian Peninsula and almost 15%
of the territory above 1000 m; compared to depressed areas, with
less than 100 m above sea level. n. m. of altitude in the great
Betic Depression. On slopes, the same phenomenon occurs.
As for the Andalusian coasts, the Atlantic coast is
characterized by an overwhelming predominance of beaches and low
coasts; For its part, the Mediterranean coast has a very
important presence of cliffs, especially in the Axarquía of
Malaga, Granada and Almería.
The asymmetrical character
is such that it will configure a natural division between Upper
and Lower Andalusia following the main relief units:
Sierra
Morena, (with the Bañuela peak of 1323 m) while marking a break
between Andalusia and the Plateau, presents a great separation -
increased by its depopulation - between the Sierra and the
countryside of Huelva, Seville, Córdoba and Jaén. However, its
elevation is low and only Sierra Madrona manages to exceed 1300
m above sea level. n. m. at its highest point La Bañuela
(outside Andalusia). Within this mountain system, the
Despeñaperros gorge stands out, which constitutes the natural
border with Castilla.
The Betic Mountain Ranges (Penibética
and Subbética) develop parallel to the Mediterranean and are not
aligned, leaving the Intrabético Furrow between them. The
Subbético is very discontinuous, so it has numerous corridors
that facilitate communication. On the contrary, the Penibético
acts as an isolating barrier between the Mediterranean coast and
the interior. The highest heights in Andalusia are found in the
Sierra Nevada, in the province of Granada; The highest peaks of
the Iberian Peninsula are located there: Mulhacén Peak (3478 m)
and Veleta (3392 m).
The Betic Depression is located between
both systems. It is an almost entirely flat territory, open
towards the Gulf of Cádiz to the southwest. Throughout history,
this has been the main population axis of Andalusia.
Rivers from the Atlantic and Mediterranean slopes flow through
Andalusia. The Guadiana, Piedras, Odiel, Tinto, Guadalquivir,
Guadalete and Barbate rivers belong to the Atlantic slope; while
the Mediterranean side corresponds to the Guadiaro, Guadalhorce,
Guadalmedina, Guadalfeo, Andarax (or Almería River) and
Almanzora. Among them, the Guadalquivir stands out for being the
longest river in Andalusia and the fifth in the Iberian
Peninsula (657 km).
The rivers of the Atlantic basin are
characterized by being extensive, flowing mostly through flat
terrain and irrigating extensive valleys. This character
determines the estuaries and marshes that form at their mouths,
such as the Doñana marshes formed by the Guadalquivir River and
the Odiel marshes. The rivers of the Mediterranean basin are
shorter, more seasonal and with a greater average slope, which
causes less extensive estuaries and valleys less prone to
agriculture. The leeward effect caused by the Betic Systems
means that their contributions are reduced.
The
Andalusian rivers are part of five different hydrographic
basins: the Guadalquivir basin, the Andalusian Atlantic Basin,
which includes the Guadalete-Barbate and Tinto-Odiel sub-basins
and the Guadiana basin, which would make up the Atlantic slope.
In the Andalusian Mediterranean basin there are the rivers that
flow into the Mediterranean. Furthermore, a small part of the
Segura River basin extends into Andalusia.
Pedogenesis is a synthetic process in which the rest of the
natural factors, both biotic and abiotic, intervene. Therefore,
it is not surprising that based on the predominant type of soil,
Andalusia can be divided into three large landscape units.
In Sierra Morena, due to its morphology and acidic soils,
mainly shallow and poor soils with forestry vocation develop. In
the valleys and limestone areas there are deeper soils where
there is poor cereal agriculture normally associated with
livestock herds. Something similar happens in the Betic Systems.
Its morphostructural complexity makes it the area with the most
heterogeneous soil and landscape in Andalusia. In very broad
terms, it is worth noting - as a difference with the other large
mountain area of Andalusia - the existence of a predominance of
basic materials in the Subbético, which together with the hilly
morphology, generate deeper soils with greater agronomic
capacity, mainly used in the cultivation of olive groves.
Finally, we must highlight the Bética Depression and the
Intrabético Furrow, as the main spaces for the development of
deep, rich soils with great agronomic capacity. It is necessary
to differentiate the alluvial soils with a loamy texture and
especially suitable for intensive irrigated crops, where those
of the Guadalquivir valley and the Vega de Granada stand out.
For its part, in the undulating areas of the countryside,
there is a double dynamic: in the valleys - filled with older
limestone materials - where very deep clay soils have developed,
called bujeo soils or Andalusian black earths where the dry
herbaceous crops. In the hilly areas, another very typical soil
has been developed—albariza—with very favorable conditions for
vine cultivation.
The poorly consolidated sandy
soils—mainly on the Huelva and Almeria coast—despite their
marginality, in recent decades have taken on great relevance
thanks to the forced cultivation under plastic of vegetables and
berries—strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, among others—.
Andalusia, biogeographically speaking, is part of the Holarctic
Kingdom, specifically the Mediterranean Region, Western
Mediterranean subregion and is made up of five phytogeographic
sectors: the Marianico-Monchiquense sector, the
Gaditano-Aljíbico and Onubense sector, the Betic sectors, the
Almeriense sector and the Manchego sector. These sectors belong
to many other Iberian chorological provinces or subprovinces.
In general terms, the typical vegetation of Andalusia is the
Mediterranean forest, characterized by evergreen and xeric
vegetation, adapted throughout the summer drought period. The
climatic and dominant species is the oak, although cork oaks,
pines, firs, among others, and of course the olive and almond
trees as cultivated species, are abundant. The dominant
undergrowth is made up of thorny and aromatic woody species:
species such as rosemary, thyme and rockrose are very typical of
Andalusia. In the most humid areas and with acidic soils, the
most abundant species are oak and cork oak, and as a cultivated
species, eucalyptus stands out. In this context there is the
greatest mycological biodiversity in Europe. Gallery forests of
leafy species are also abundant: poplars and elms, and even
poplar as a cultivated species in the Granada plain.
The existing biodiversity in Andalusia extends to fauna. In this
way, more than 400 species of vertebrates of the 630 existing in
Spain live in this autonomous community. Its strategic position
between the Mediterranean basin, the Atlantic Ocean and the
Strait of Gibraltar, makes Andalusia one of the natural passages
for thousands of migratory birds that travel between Europe and
Africa. The Andalusian wetlands are home to a very rich
birdlife, for the combination of species of African origin, such
as the horned coot, the swallow or the flamingo, with birds from
northern Europe, such as geese. Among the birds of prey, the
imperial eagle, the griffon vulture and the kite stand out.
As for herbivores, there are deer, fallow deer, roe deer,
mouflon and the ibex, the latter in decline compared to the ruí,
an invasive species introduced from Africa for hunting purposes
in the 1970s. Among the small herbivores, the hare stands out.
and the rabbit, which constitute the basis of the diet of most
of the carnivorous species of the Mediterranean forest.
Large carnivores such as the Iberian wolf and the Iberian lynx
are highly threatened and are limited to Doñana, Sierra Morena
and Despeñaperros. The wild boar, on the other hand, is well
preserved due to its hunting importance. More abundant and in
different conservation status are the smaller carnivores, such
as the otter, the fox, the badger, the polecat, the weasel, the
wild cat, the genet and the mongoose.
Other notable
species are the ocellated lizard, the long-nosed viper and the
Aphanius baeticus or Andalusian salinete, the latter highly
endangered.
According to the Catalog of Species included in the Andalusian
Program for the Control of Invasive Exotic Species, in Andalusia
there are a large number of both animal and plant species that
have been introduced into the Andalusian ecosystem. Among them,
invasive species are the most dangerous for the conservation of
the biodiversity of Andalusian ecosystems.
Invasive
species that manage to adapt to the new environment become
strong in it and even decimate the population of native species.
These exotic species can reach the new environment in various
ways: abandonment of pets in the new ecosystem, destruction by
man of their previous ecosystem, implantation by man in the new
ecosystem to alleviate a problem... The reasons are diverse. ,
but the solutions are similar in all cases since what is
attempted is to progressively reduce the population of the
invasive species.
In Andalusia, invasive species are both
animals and plants, for example:
Cat's Claw: It is
distributed on the coasts of western Andalusia (Huelva and Cádiz
especially). It was introduced for decorative use and to fix
dunes and slopes on the coast. It causes the displacement of
coastal dune species, a decrease in light incident on the soil
and the germination of native species, and is the competition of
native species in pollination.
Eucalyptus: it is spread
throughout the Andalusian territory since it was introduced for
forestry and soil fixing purposes. Above all, it causes the
reduction of the vegetation cover and the displacement of native
plants, overexploitation of aquifers.
Prickly pear:
widespread throughout the community, especially on the coast. It
was introduced for ornamental use and hedge formation. As a
secondary use, it has also been used as a fodder plant for
livestock and producer of fruits for human consumption. It is a
plant that invades coastal ecosystems of interest (dune systems,
forests and coastal scrub) in which it competes with native
flora species.
American river crab: distributed throughout
the Andalusian territory. It was the fishermen who introduced it
in voluntary releases for fishing. It has many negative effects
on native flora and fauna through predation. It even competes
with native species of other crabs due to its larger size, its
reproductive rate and its resistance to pests. Its main impact
is being a vector of the fungus Aphanomices astaci, which causes
aphanomicosis and is fatal to the native crab (Austropotamobius
pallipes). They also excavate galleries that increase the
erosion of river banks.
Common carp: it is present in rivers
throughout Andalusia. It is very abundant in reservoirs and in
the middle and lower reaches of rivers with greater flow. It was
introduced voluntarily by fishermen for sport fishing. The
common carp is the cause of serious ecological imbalances. It is
related to an increase in the turbidity of the water sheet due
to their movements and their excrement. The increase in
turbidity is responsible for less penetration of sunlight and,
consequently, for the disappearance of submerged macrophytes,
indirectly affecting invertebrates and aquatic birds.
Florida
Galapagos: it was introduced to Spain in the 1980s. In Andalusia
it is distributed throughout different coastal wetlands,
although it can also be found in lakes and ponds such as those
in peri-urban parks. Its introduction was due to the voluntary
or involuntary release of animals raised as pets. It is a
voracious predator of invertebrates, fish and amphibians as well
as floating and sessile aquatic vegetation. It competes with
other Galapagos species, which it displaces, such as the
European pond turtle. It has adapted very well to the
environment since it is capable of living in natural conditions
that the other Galapagos species do not tolerate (greater
pollution and human presence).
Kramer's parrot: arrived in
Spain in the mid-1980s and has spread to parks and gardens in
Almería, Granada, Málaga and Seville. Like other exotic birds,
its introduction into the Andalusian ecosystem occurred due to
the involuntary release of animals raised as pets. There is
great competition for nests with bats and woodpeckers (Picidae).
It competes in the food chain with the common blackbird, the
blackcap and other granivores and frugivores.
Micropterus
salmoides: commonly known as black bass.
Andalusia has a large number of natural spaces and ecosystems of
great uniqueness and environmental value. Its importance and the
need to make the conservation of its values and its economic use
compatible have encouraged the protection and management of the
most representative landscapes and ecosystems of the Andalusian
territory.
The different protection figures are included
within the Network of Protected Natural Spaces of Andalusia
(RENPA) which integrates the natural spaces located in the
Andalusian territory protected by some regulations at the
regional, national, community or international conventions. The
RENPA is made up of 150 protected spaces divided into 3 National
Parks, 23 Natural Parks, 21 Peri-urban Parks, 32 Natural Sites,
2 Protected Landscapes, 37 Natural Monuments, 28 Natural
Reserves and 4 Concerted Natural Reserves, all of them included
in the Natura Network. 2000 at European level. At the
international level, we must highlight the 9 Biosphere Reserves,
20 Ramsar Sites, 4 Specially Protected Areas of Importance for
the Mediterranean -ZEPIM- and 2 Geoparks.
In total,
practically 20% of the Andalusian territory is under protection
of some regulations in different areas, which represents
approximately 30% of the protected territory in Spain.45 Among
the many spaces, the Sierra de Cazorla natural park stands out.
, Segura and Las Villas, the largest natural park in Spain and
the second in Europe, the Sierra Nevada national park, Doñana
and the subdesert areas of the Tabernas Desert and the Cabo de
Gata-Níjar natural park.
The idea of unifying the provinces of southern Spain under the
same administrative region was born in the second half of the
19th century, with the Andalusian movement gaining more
relevance during the reign of Alfonso XIII and the second
Spanish Republic, and having Blas Infante as the maximum
exponent of said movement. During the period of the Second
Republic, an attempt was made to establish Andalusia as an
autonomous region. To this end, the Córdoba Assembly of 1933 was
held in which delegations from the eight provinces involved
(Province of Huelva, Province of Seville, Province of Cádiz,
Province of Córdoba, Province of Jaén, Province of Málaga,
Province of Granada and Province of Almería) met to debate the
development of a statute of autonomy. The assembly ended with
the withdrawal of the delegations from Huelva, Jaén, Granada and
Almería, and the abstention of the Malaga delegation. The
failure of the Córdoba assembly, together with the outbreak of
the Spanish Civil War and the subsequent victory of the national
side, led to the idea of constituting Andalusia as an
autonomous region being temporarily set aside. It would not be
until 1981 when, after the referendum on the initiative of the
autonomous process of Andalusia in 1980, Andalusia would obtain
autonomy. However, it is also relevant to briefly outline the
previous history of the territory currently integrated into said
historical nationality.
The geostrategic position of
Andalusia at the southern end of Europe, between it and Africa,
between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, as well as its
mineral and agricultural wealth and its large surface area of
87,597 km² (larger than many European countries), They form a
conjunction of factors that made Andalusia a focus of attraction
for other civilizations since the beginning of the Age of
Metals.
In fact, its geographical location as a link
between Africa and Europe means that some theories suggest that
the first European hominids, after crossing the Strait of
Gibraltar, were located in the Andalusian territory. The first
cultures developed in Andalusia (Los Millares, El Argar and
Tartessos) had a clear orientalizing nuance, because people from
the eastern Mediterranean settled on the Andalusian coasts in
search of minerals and left their civilizing influence. The
process of passing from prehistory to history, known as
protohistory, was linked to the influence of these peoples,
mainly Greeks and Phoenicians, a broad historical moment in
which Cádiz, the oldest city in Western Europe, followed in
antiquity, was founded. for another Andalusian city: Malaga.
Andalusia was fully incorporated into the Roman Empire with
its conquest and Romanization, creating the province of Baetica,
a subdivision of a primitive province that dates back to the
Roman conquest called Hispania Ulterior. Given its status as a
senatorial province due to its very high degree of Romanization,
it was the only province of Hispania to hold this status. It had
great economic and political importance in the Empire, to which
it contributed numerous magistrates and senators, in addition to
the outstanding figures of the Emperors Trajan and Hadrian.
The Germanic invasions of Vandals and later of Visigoths did
not make the cultural and political role of Baetica disappear
and during the 5th and 6th centuries the Baetic-Roman landowners
maintained practically independence with respect to Toledo. In
this period, figures such as Saint Isidore of Seville or Saint
Hermenegildo stood out.
In 711, after the Battle of
Guadalete, the Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula took
place. The Andalusian territory was the main political center of
the different Muslim states of al-Andalus, with Córdoba being
the capital and one of the main cultural and economic centers in
the world at that time. This period of flourishing culminated
with the Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba, where figures such as
Abderramán III or Alhakén II stood out. Already in the 11th
century there was a period of serious crisis that was taken
advantage of by the Christian kingdoms of the northern peninsula
to advance their conquests and by the different North African
empires that followed one another—Almoravids and Almohads—that
exerted their influence in al-Andalus. and they also established
their centers of power on the peninsula in Granada and Seville,
respectively. Between these periods of centralization of power,
the political fragmentation of the peninsular territory
occurred, which was divided into first, second and third
kingdoms of taifas. Among the latter, the Nasrid Kingdom of
Granada had a fundamental historical and emblematic role.
The Crown of Castile gradually conquered the territories of
the southern peninsula. Ferdinand III personalized the conquest
of the entire Guadalquivir valley in the 13th century. The
Andalusian territory was divided into a Christian part and a
Muslim part until 1492 when the conquest of the Iberian
Peninsula ended with the taking of Granada and the disappearance
of the kingdom of the same name.
It was in the 16th
century that Andalusia exploited its geographical position more,
since it centralized trade with the New World, through the Casa
de Contratación de Indias, based first in Seville, which became
the most populated city of the Spanish Empire and two centuries
later in Cádiz until its disappearance in that same century.
After Christopher Columbus arrived in America, Andalusia played
a fundamental role in his discovery and colonization. However,
there was no true economic development in Andalusia due to the
numerous Crown companies in Europe. Social and economic wear and
tear became widespread in the 17th century and culminated in the
conspiracy of the Andalusian nobility against the government of
the Count-Duke of Olivares in 1641.
In the middle of the
16th century, some inhabitants of Andalusia and Extremadura
emigrated to New Spain, influenced by Charles I and, later, by
his son Philip II, settling in the current states of Veracruz,
Hidalgo and the State of Mexico, and in the region.
sociocultural of El Bajío, thus contributing to the nascent
Spanish culture in Mexico.
The Bourbon reforms of the
18th century did not remedy the fact that Spain in general and
Andalusia in particular were losing political and economic
weight in the European and world context. Likewise, the loss of
the Spanish overseas colonies will gradually remove Andalusia
from the mercantilist economic circuits.
This situation
improved during the following century, since Andalusian industry
had an important weight in the Spanish economy during the 19th
century. In 1856, Andalusia was the second Spanish region in
terms of degree of industrialization. A century later it was
practically at the bottom, with an industrialization index lower
than 50 percent of the Spanish average level. While between 1856
and 1900 Andalusia had an industrialization index higher than
the national average in the food, metallurgy, chemistry and
ceramics branches, from 1915 this supremacy was reduced to the
food and chemical branches.
After that expansive century,
during most of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st,
Andalusia, and despite being established as an autonomous
community in 1981, did not manage to match its development rates
to the rest of Spain, being the region with the highest
unemployment. the entire EU and lower per capita income in the
country.
Andalusia acceded to autonomy through the so-called aggravated
route or procedure, included in article 151 of the Spanish
Constitution of 1978. The process required that the initiative
be approved by an absolute majority of the voters in the
proposed community and in each province and not by majority of
votes cast. Although the initiative obtained majority support
throughout Andalusia, the required majority was lacking in the
province of Almería (see Referendum on the initiative of the
autonomous process of Andalusia), where although a majority of
the votes was reached, abstention did not allow a majority to be
achieved. of voters. The situation presented a problem because
the same article 151 mandates a waiting period of 5 years in
case of failure, which was finally not considered and the actual
majority obtained was taken into account. Following this
procedure, the Autonomous Community of Andalusia was established
on February 28, 1980 after holding a referendum, declaring in
the first article of its Statute of Autonomy (1981) that such
autonomy is justified in the "historical identity, in the
self-government that the Constitution allows for every
nationality, in full equality with the rest of the nationalities
and regions that make up Spain, and with a power that emanates
from the Constitution and the Andalusian people, reflected in
its Statute of Autonomy.
In October 2006, the
Constitutional Commission of the Cortes Generales approved, with
the favorable votes of PSOE, IU and PP, a new Statute of
autonomy, whose preamble mentions, first, that in the Andalusian
Manifesto of 1919 Andalusia was described as a national reality,
to continue exposing its current status as a nationality within
the indissoluble unity of the Spanish Nation. Later in its
articles it defined itself, more specifically, as a historical
nationality, unlike the previous statute (from 1981) where it
was simply defined as a nationality.
On November 2, 2006,
the Congress of Deputies ratified the text of the Constitutional
Commission with 306 votes in favor, none against and two
abstentions, being the first time that an Organic Law of a
Statute of autonomy was approved without any vote. against. It
was approved by the Senate, in a plenary session held on
December 20, 2006, and ratified in a referendum by the
Andalusian People on February 18, 2007.
The Statute of
Andalusia regulates the different institutions in charge of
government and administration within the Community. The Junta de
Andalucía is the main institution in which the government is
organized. On the other hand, there are other self-government
institutions: the Andalusian Ombudsman, the Advisory Council,
the Chamber of Accounts, the Audiovisual Council of Andalusia
and the Economic and Social Council.
The Junta de Andalucía is the institution in which the
self-government of the Autonomous Community of Andalusia is
organized. It is made up of: the president of the Junta de
Andalucía, who is the supreme representative of the autonomous
community and the ordinary representative of the State therein.
His election takes place by the favorable vote of the absolute
majority of the Plenary of the Parliament of Andalusia and his
appointment corresponds to the king. The president of the Board
is Juan Manuel Moreno Bonilla.
The Government Council,
which is the highest political and administrative body of the
Community, which is responsible for the exercise of regulatory
power and the performance of the executive function. It is
composed of the president of the Junta de Andalucía, who
presides over it, and by the counselors appointed by him to take
charge of the various Departments (Ministries). This structure
is established by Presidential Decree 6/2019, of February 11,
which modifies Presidential Decree 2/2019, of January 21, on the
Vice Presidency and on the restructuring of Ministries. During
the 11th legislature (started in 2019) the Government of
Andalusia was a sum of the coalition of the Popular Party and
Ciudadanos with the external support of Vox, with a total of 11
Ministries, 6 belonging to the Popular Party and 5 to
Ciudadanos.
In the XII Legislature that began in July
2022 after the absolute majority of the Popular Party, the
Andalusian Government will be composed as follows:
President:
Juan Manuel Moreno Bonilla.
Ministry of the Presidency,
Interior, Social Dialogue and Administrative Simplification:
Antonio Sanz
Ministry of Social Inclusion, Youth, Families
and Equality: Loles López Gabarro
Ministry of Development,
Territorial Articulation and Housing: Rocío Díaz Jiménez
Ministry of Educational Development and Vocational Training:
Patricia del Pozo Fernández
Ministry of Economy, Finance and
European Funds: Carolina España Reina
Ministry of
Sustainability, Environment and Blue Economy: Ramón
Fernández-Pacheco
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries, Water
and Rural Development: Carmen Crespo
Ministry of Justice,
Local Administration and Public Function: José Antonio Nieto
Department of Employment, Companies and Self-Employed Workers:
Rocío Blanco Eguren
Ministry of Industry, Energy and Mines:
Jorge Paradela Gutiérrez
Ministry of Tourism, Culture and
Sports: Arturo Bernal Bergua
Ministry of Health and Consumer
Affairs: Catalina García Carrasco
Department of University,
Research and Innovation: José Carlos Gómez Villamandos
The Parliament of Andalusia is the autonomous legislative
assembly, which is responsible for the preparation and approval
of the Laws and the election and dismissal of the president of
the Junta de Andalucía.
The elections to the Parliament
of Andalusia are the democratic formula through which the
citizens of Andalusia elect their 109 political representatives
in the autonomous chamber. After the approval of the Statute of
Autonomy of Andalusia through Organic Law 6/1981 of December 30,
1981, the first elections to its autonomous Parliament were
called for May 23, 1982. Elections were subsequently held in
1986, 1990, 1994, 1996, 2000, 2004, 2008, 2012, 2015, 2018 and
2022.
The highest judicial body of the autonomous community is the Superior Court of Justice of Andalusia, based in Granada, before which successive procedural instances are exhausted without prejudice to the jurisdiction that corresponds to the Supreme Court. However, the Superior Court of Justice of Andalusia is not an organ of the autonomous community but is part of the Judicial Power, which is unique throughout the Kingdom and cannot be transferred to the autonomous communities. The Andalusian territory is divided into 88 judicial districts.