Turkmenistan, officially - Turkmenistan is located in Central
Asia. It received its modern borders only in 1923-1924. The
independence of the country was proclaimed on October 27, 1991. The
official form of government is a secular constitutional unitary
presidential republic, but in fact it is a secular-traditionalist
super-presidential totalitarian-isolationist hereditary
dictatorship, with an almost ultra-right unspoken nationalist
ideology of the superiority of the Turkmen-Tekins.
Turkmenistan is the 4th country in the world in terms of natural gas
reserves. The territory of the country has a rich and ancient
history.
The area of the country is 491,200 km².
The country is located in the southwestern part of Central (Middle)
Asia, mainly within the Turan lowland and the Karakum desert.
Turkmenistan borders with Iran in the south and with Afghanistan in
the south and southeast, with Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan in the
north, in the west the coast is washed by the waters of the Caspian
Sea.
The Karakum desert occupies the central part of the
country, stretching from west to east for 880 km (375,000 sq. km).
Most of the country (about 80%) is a sandy plain. The southern parts
of the country are occupied by the Kopetdag mountains, which are a
buffer between Turkmenistan and Iran. In the east of the country is
the Kugitangtau cave, where the remains of ancient dinosaurs were
found. The Amu Darya River flows through the country.
As of 2022, more than 6.2 million people officially
live in Turkmenistan, and according to unofficial data, no more than
3-3.5 million people remain in the country (due to irrevocable
emigration). The vast majority of the population are Sunni Muslims
(Hanafis) - over 96%. Christians (mainly Orthodox and the Armenian
Church) make up about 3% of the population, other religions (Shia,
Protestant movements, Baha'is and others) - about 2%.
More
than 80% of the population is officially classified as Turkmen, but
this number includes ethnic Uzbeks and representatives of other
Turkic peoples, who are recorded as Turkmen as part of the ongoing
“Turkmenization” in the country. The largest national minorities are
Uzbeks and Russians.
Akhal velayat is the central region of the country, the
administrative center of which is the small town of Annau. On the
territory of this velayat is located the capital of the country -
Ashgabat, which is considered a city with the rights of a velayat. The
northern part of the region is occupied by the Karakum desert, but the
southern territories are occupied by the picturesque mountains of
Kopetdag, which separate Turkmenistan from Iran. On the territory of the
velayat there are ruins and monuments of the ancient Parthian city of
Nisa, which are included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. The
population of Akhal velayat (excluding Ashgabat) is officially about one
million people, the bulk of which are Turkmens from the Tekin tribe.
The Balkan velayat is the western region of the country, which is
washed by the Caspian Sea, and from the north and south it borders on
Kazakhstan and Iran, respectively. The administrative center is the port
city of Turkmenbashi. It is one of the most developed regions of the
country. Avaza, the country's largest seaside resort, is located on the
territory of the Balkan velayat. The official population is
approximately 800,000, the majority of which are Turkmens, but there are
also Russians, Tatars and Ukrainians in significant numbers.
Dashoguz velayat is the northern region of the country, which borders on
Uzbekistan. The administrative center is the city of Dashoguz (it was
renamed as part of the “Turkmenization” policy, it used to be called
Tashauz). It is one of the most interesting regions of Turkmenistan in
terms of archeology and ancient architecture. Ancient buildings of the
era of the pre-Mongol invasion, built in the ancient Khorezm style, have
been preserved here. The population of the velayat is approximately 1.8
million people. Unlike other regions, in the Dashoguz velayat the
majority are Khorezmian Uzbeks (accordingly, the most common language is
Uzbek), most of whom are recorded as “Turkmen” in their passports due to
the “Turkmenizia” of the Turkic peoples living in the country. Ancient
architectural monuments and objects in this region are almost identical
in style and age with the monuments of Khiva and its environs in
neighboring Uzbekistan, since the Khorezm region of Uzbekistan and the
Dashoguz region of Turkmenistan are part of the ancient historical and
geographical region of Khorezm. The most famous ancient city on the
territory of the Dashoguz velayat is Kunya-Urgench (renamed in the
Turkmen manner to "Kunya-Urgench"), which is included in the UNESCO
World Heritage List.
Lebap velayat is the northeastern region of
the country, which borders on Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. The
administrative center is the city of Turkmenabad (it was renamed as part
of the “Turkmenization” policy, it used to be called Chardzhuy). Almost
the entire territory of the region is occupied by the Karakum Desert,
the full-flowing Amudarya River flows. The region is primarily
interesting for its ancient archaeological sites, which are more than
two and a half thousand years old. There are ruins of ancient Khorezm
and Parthian cities. The region is home to approximately one million
people. Mostly Turkmens live, but also the relative majority of ethnic
Uzbeks (accordingly, one of the two common languages is Uzbek), most of
whom are recorded in the passport as "Turkmen" due to the above reason.
Mary velayat is the eastern region of the country bordering
Afghanistan. The administrative center is the city of Mary (it was
renamed as part of the “Turkmenization” policy, it used to be called
Merv). Almost the entire territory of the region is occupied by the
Karakum desert, but the southern and eastern parts of the region are
occupied by hills. The region is primarily interesting for its ancient
archaeological and architectural monuments, which are more than two and
a half thousand years old. There are ruins of ancient Parthian and
Persian cities. The ruins and monuments of the ancient city of Merv are
included in the UNESCO World Heritage List. More than half a million
people live in the region. Mostly Turkmens live, but Uzbeks also live in
significant numbers.
Ashgabat - the capital of the state
Turkmenbashi (formerly
Krasnovodsk)
Turkmenabad (formerly Chardzhou)
Balkanabat (formerly
Nebit-Dag)
Mary
Other destinations
Desert Karakum
Fire
crater Darvaza
Gulf of Kara-Bogaz-Bol
Baharden underground lake
Merv oasis
Gainar-baba
Mollakara
UNESCO World Heritage
Sites
State Historical and Cultural Park Ancient Merv
Parthian
fortress Old Nisa
Köne-Urgench
Visa
Turkmenistan is one of the most closed countries in the
world, so citizens of absolutely all states, including Russia and other
post-Soviet countries, need a visa. Information about obtaining a visa
in Moscow is on the official website of the embassy. Turkmenistan does
not issue an e-visa. The Turkmen visa is one of the most difficult, it
is very difficult to get it for entry for the purpose of tourism.
There is a theoretical possibility to obtain a visa on arrival at
Ashgabat International Airport, for which you will need a passport, as
well as an original or a photocopy of an invitation from a legal entity
or individual, issued in the prescribed manner and agreed with the state
migration service of Turkmenistan.
Some travelers managed to get
a transit visa (for example, for a trip from Uzbekistan to Iran), which,
apparently, is somewhat easier.
By plane
The main
international airport is in Ashgabat. As of December 2022, only the
local airline Turkmenistan Airlines flies here (Moscow, Kazan, Istanbul,
Frankfurt am Main, Dubai, Beijing). From the Ashgabat airport, you can
also fly to the regional centers of Turkmenistan: to Turkmenbashi,
Dashoguz, Turkmenabad and Mary, as well as to the town of Kerki. All
these airports (except Kerkinsky) also have international status, but in
fact flights abroad are operated only from Turkmenbashi, and even then
only to Istanbul and Minsk (Turkish Airlines and Belavia, respectively).
Tickets for these flights are very difficult to find and buy for a
foreigner for adequate money, everything is quickly sold out by the
residents of Turkmenistan themselves.
By train
Turkmen
railways have access to Uzbekistan, Iran and Afghanistan (so far a
dead-end exit), but passenger transportation outside the country has not
been carried out since the mid-1990s, and everything is limited to
freight traffic, so even in the near future it is a traveler to enter
Turkmenistan by train fail.
By car
Turkmenistan has land
borders with Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Iran. Turkmenistan
is connected with these states by highways, built mainly in the Soviet
era. The border with Afghanistan is actually closed, and there is no
information about border crossings working for ordinary people. There is
only one crossing on the border with Kazakhstan. The main crossings to
Uzbekistan are located near the cities of Dashoguz and Turkmenabad, and
the main international crossing on the border with Iran is located in
the city of Serakhs in the southeast of the country.
Highways
between cities have been extensively repaired in recent years, but their
quality is still far from ideal. They pass through lifeless deserts,
which is why they are sometimes covered with sand.
By bus
International bus service is completely absent due to the isolationist
policy of Turkmenistan.
By ship
Before the pandemic, there was
a regular railway-passenger-cargo crossing from Baku on the Caspian Sea
to the port city of Turkmenbashi and back. The duration of the crossing
is 12-15 hours, depending on the weather. Each of the operating ferries
takes on board 28 railway cars and 200 passengers. Eight of the nine
ships operating at the crossing fly the Azerbaijani flag, and only one
under the Turkmen (but at the same time, the Turkmen ferry is the most
modern). There is an unconfirmed option of crossing this ferry in your
own private car. Ferry tickets can only be purchased in Baku and
Turkmenbashi respectively.
The state and official language of the country is Turkmen. About 80% of older residents speak Russian, while not all young people speak Russian, preferring English or Turkish. In the northern and northeastern parts of the country, the Uzbek language is spoken, and partly Kazakh and Karakalpak languages. In addition to their native Turkmen and Russian languages, a sufficient number of the population in the country speaks or at least understands Turkish and Azerbaijani, so the citizens of Turkmenistan go to work mainly in Turkey, and there is a large diaspora of Turkish businessmen and specialists in the country. English is mainly spoken by young people and workers in the tourism sector. Also, the Persian language has some popularity as the state language of Iran, the southern neighbor of Turkmenistan.
The
currency of Turkmenistan is the Turkmen manat.
Currency code: TMM
Exchange rate: There are actually two US dollar rates in the country.
Officially, for 1 $ they give about 3.50 manats, and on the black market
one dollar costs from 15 to 20 manats. The population and most tourists
use the black market exclusively. Keep in mind that currency exchange on
the black market is illegal, and you change at your own peril and risk
(you may get caught with a fake bill, you will fall into a raid on
illegal money changers), although with a favorable rate.
For more
information, visit the website of the Central Bank of Turkmenistan.
There are very few ATMs in Turkmenistan that accept international
bank cards (Visa, Mastercard). Please note that you will be asked to
show your passport before withdrawing money from the card.
Turkmen carpets are especially valued.
Turkmen cuisine is
similar to Uzbek and Iranian, although there are also traditional,
primordially Turkmen dishes that are more reminiscent of the food of
nomadic peoples, since until the 1920s, Turkmens, unlike Uzbeks and
Iranians, did not lead a settled way of life.
In Ashgabat and
regional centers you can find modern restaurants, cafes and coffee shops
of the European type. In all settlements there are canteens and eateries
with national cuisine. Pretentious restaurants with Turkmen cuisine are
not uncommon. Fresh vegetables and meat can be bought at the bazaars.
The largest bazaars of the country are located in Ashgabat, Turkmenbashi
and Dashoguz. It is better to go to the market in the morning, when you
can buy fresh fruits and the best meat.
Against the
backdrop of neighboring Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, there is
practically no real nightlife in Turkmenistan. Even in neighboring Iran,
you can count on more variety and a higher level of service. In the
capital and large cities there are old-fashioned nightclubs and discos,
there are also expensive restaurants and cafes open until 22-23 hours.
The main clients of these establishments are aggressive and arrogant
children of officials, security officials and local rich people. Going
to a nightclub or staying up late at a restaurant, you run the risk of
being found violating the unspoken curfew that is introduced here from
time to time. The police conduct regular raids and are especially
interested in heterosexual couples who may be asked for a marriage
certificate or other proof of relationship. Also, in Turkmen nightclubs,
you can often become an eyewitness or even a participant in a drunken
fight or brawl, and security will not help you if the instigator of the
fight is the son of an influential person. Many hot Turkmen guys carry
knives or sharpeners with them after the evening, and they can use them
when drunk.
Smoking is strictly prohibited in entertainment and
catering establishments.
Many empty hotels have
been built in the major cities of the country. They often have 4-5 stars
and seem fashionable from the outside, although in reality they do not
stand up to criticism in terms of service and infrastructure. Prices in
such hotels are simply cosmic, even for foreigners.
Hostels and
guesthouses are negligible, they are only in large cities. Soviet-era
hotels have been preserved, where, due to low prices, locals mostly
stay.
In a conversation with ordinary citizens,
and even more so with civil servants, be extremely careful in your
statements about the ruling regime, politics and the current
socio-economic situation in the country. Among the people there are many
Turkmen security officials dressed in civilian clothes, who are
primarily interested in foreigners. They also analyze the current mood
among the people. Rights and freedoms in the country are not respected.
Here the position of a lawyer (even a private one) is formal. Turkmen
security officers are especially vigilant in relation to journalists and
bloggers.
It is better not to go out after 22:00, as you may be
accused of violating the curfew, which is often announced without
notice. Turkmen Chekists and security forces in general are obsessed
with spy mania. Even at night there are many police patrols.
Internet access is limited. It is expensive and slow, and in addition,
many popular and seemingly harmless sites are blocked, including social
networks and instant messengers. A VPN won't help much as all known
services are blocked too, and the speed with a VPN is so slow that it
turns an already slow internet into a dead tortoise. In addition, local
security officials are suspicious of those who have installed programs
to bypass blocking.
Turkmenistan is perhaps the hottest country
in the post-Soviet space. There is a sharp, very dry, subtropical-inland
climate, that is, palm trees do not grow, but it is extremely hot in
summer. Winter is cold (there is almost no snow, and if it does, it
melts in a few hours or days) and windy, while in spring and autumn it
is rainy and overcast. During the summer period, from May to September,
it is even hotter in Turkmenistan than in neighboring Uzbekistan, but
slightly cooler than in Iran. In June, July and August, the temperature
in cities can approach +60 degrees, which is why there are very few
people on the streets during the day. Locals try to do all their
business in the morning or in the evening, when it is not so hot.
Hurricanes and dust storms often occur (dry and hot wind "Afghan" is
active here). In March-May and September-November, rainy and cloudy days
and weeks are not uncommon.
From the southeast, Turkmenistan
borders on Afghanistan through the steppe hills. Try not to approach the
border zone both with Afghanistan and with other neighbors, since the
danger comes not from imaginary Afghan militants, but from Turkmen
border guards and security officers, who, having seen a foreigner in
this zone, will definitely detain you and will not leave you alone,
suspecting of any deeds - from "an attempt to illegally cross the
border" to "espionage".
In Turkmenistan, even voluntary
homosexual relations between men are still a criminal offense and can be
punished with imprisonment from 2 to 5 years. If this is relevant to
you, try not to advertise your orientation at all.
The mobile operator "Altyn Asyr" operates on the territory of the country. The international dialing code of Turkmenistan is +993. Country internet domain .tm
Internet cafes are few in number but well equipped in major cities. However, you should keep an eye on opening hours. Internet cafes open early in the morning and close in the evening, also early. You need to have your passport with you. Access is provided by SCE "Turkmentelecom".
The name of the state has existed since 1924, when the Turkmen SSR
was formed as a result of national-territorial demarcation from the
Turkmen region of the Turkestan ASSR and small parts of the territories
of the former Bukhara NSR (Turkmen Autonomous Region) and Khorezm NSR
(Turkmen Autonomous Region).
In 1991, the country declared
independence and in the constitution adopted in 1992 established the
name "Turkmenistan"; the toponym is formed by combining the ethnonym
"Turkmens" and the Iranian-language formant -stan - "country".
The ethnonym "Turkmens" itself, formed from the more general ethnonym
"Turk", has been known since the 10th century to designate the people
who spread in the 8th-10th centuries from the Talas River to the Caspian
Sea (the ethnonym Oghuz was previously used); In Kievan Rus they are
mentioned as Torkmens, in Russian chronicles of the 13th century -
Taurmens, and in Tsarist Russia - as Turkomans and Trukhmens. In the
notes of the Russian traveler of the 15th century Afanasy Nikitin, the
Turkmen land is mentioned.
In the 5th-4th millennia BC, in the lower reaches of the Kopetdag
foothills streams, the ancient tribes of Turkmenistan switched to
sedentary agriculture, domesticated sheep and dogs. Thanks to the
transition to agriculture and the emergence of cattle breeding, the
rapid development of all areas of production and everyday life began,
which led to the emergence of one of the most ancient archaeological
cultures - Anau.
In the 3rd-2nd millennia BC, the Margiana
civilization existed in the southeast of Turkmenistan.
In the
6th-4th centuries BC, the territory was under the rule of the Persian
kings of the Achaemenid dynasty, then Alexander the Great. During the
same period, the Kuyusay culture arose in the north of Turkmenistan,
which, with the participation of the culture of southern Turkmenistan,
formed the ancient Khorezm state.
From the 3rd century BC. — the
territory of Turkmenistan was part of the Parthian Kingdom (the capital
is Nisa), created by the Parni tribes living in the south of
Turkmenistan. Later — the territory of Turkmenistan was part of the
Sassanid state.
In the 5th-8th centuries, the territory was
conquered by the Hephthalites, proto-Turks, and Arabs. In 776-783, the
population took part in the anti-Arab uprising led by the Khurramite
Hashim ibn Hakim (Muqanna).
In the 9th century, the capital of
the Abbasid Caliphate was located on the territory of Turkmenistan
(Merv).
In the 9th-10th centuries, in the states of the Tahirids
and Samanids.
By the 11th century, the territory of Turkmenistan
was conquered by the Oghuz, who, mixing with the local population, also
of Turkic origin, created the Turkmen ethnic group. In the 11th-13th
centuries, the first Turkmen state was created - the Seljuk Empire, the
capital of which during the reign of Sultan Sanjar was located in the
south of Turkmenistan in the city of Merv.
In the 12th-13th
centuries, the Turkmen dynasty of Anushtegenids founded and headed a
large medieval empire - the State of Khorezmshahs, which included all of
Turkmenistan, and the capital was in the city of Kuneurgench (Gurganj)
in the north of Turkmenistan.
In the first quarter of the 13th
century, it was conquered by the Mongols and later ended up in the
Ilkhanate, then in the Timurid state.
From the 16th-17th
centuries in the Khiva and Bukhara khanates.
In 1869-1885, the
territory of Turkmenistan was annexed to the Russian Empire
(Transcaspian region).
In November - December 1917, Soviet power
was established. The main part of Turkmenistan's territory became part
of the Turkestan ASSR on August 7, 1921 as the Turkmen region. On
October 27, 1924, according to the national-territorial demarcation of
the Soviet republics of Central Asia, it was transformed into the
Turkmen SSR.
On October 6, 1948, a powerful earthquake occurred
in Ashgabat, taking the lives of 60 to 100 thousand people.
In
October 1990, the Supreme Council of the Turkmen SSR established the
post of president of the republic.
On October 26, 1991, a
referendum on the independence of Turkmenistan was held. To the question
"Do you agree with the legislative establishment of Turkmenistan as an
independent democratic state?" 94% of citizens of the Turkmen SSR
answered positively. The next day, the Supreme Council of the republic
adopted the Constitutional Law "On the Independence and Foundations of
the State Structure of Turkmenistan". Turkmenistan became independent.
On December 12, 1995, Turkmenistan declared permanent neutrality. UN
General Assembly Resolution 50/80 was adopted, expressing the hope that
"the status of permanent neutrality of Turkmenistan will contribute to
strengthening peace and security in the region." In this resolution, the
UN "recognizes and supports the status of permanent neutrality declared
by Turkmenistan."
On December 28, 1999, the Khalk Maslakhaty
declared Saparmurat Niyazov a lifelong president with the right to be
re-elected an unlimited number of times.
In February 2001, on his
61st birthday, Niyazov announced the approximate date of his departure
from the presidency - 2010.
In August 2002, the Khalk Maslakhaty
renamed the months of the year and the days of the week in his honor.
Another innovation was the new division of the human life cycle into
ages[69].
In November 2002, an attempted coup d'état took place
in the country. According to the official version, the coup was
organized by former high-ranking government officials, including the
former chairman of parliament, heads of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
security ministries, and several governors, "in conjunction with a group
of foreign citizens." At the same time, an "unsuccessful attempt on the
life of the country's president, Saparmurat Niyazov, was organized. Most
of the conspirators were arrested and, in accordance with the court's
decision, sentenced to various prison terms. Boris Shikhmuradov
voluntarily returned to Turkmenistan and surrendered to the authorities.
His "confession speech" was broadcast on national television and was
subsequently shown on many Russian and international channels.
"Rukhnama" is a special, significant element from the Niyazov era - a
book written by the president of the country. It was placed in
Turkmenistan on the same level as the Koran; people were forced to pass
exams to get acquainted with it at universities, it was studied as a
basic subject. The main message of this book was that, according to
Saparmurat Niyazov, the Turkmens were a great nation that had been
unfairly humiliated by the Soviet Union and Russian tsarism; Noah may
have been a Turkmen; and the wheel (carriage) was invented by the
Turkmen. Words like "Oh, my black-eyed ones!" were intended to instill a
sense of patriotism in the Turkmen youth.
All schoolchildren were
required to recite the "Pledge of Allegiance" every day before classes.
It included the words: "May my hand wither away... May my tongue be cut
off... In the hour of treason to the Motherland, to Saparmurat
Turkmenbashi the Great... May my breath be cut off...".
The old
building of the State Russian Drama Theatre named after A.S. Pushkin was
demolished, and immediately after that the theatre began its work in
another building. The old building of the Academic Opera and Ballet
Theatre named after Magtymguly, the renamed theater began working in a
new modern building. Also, the monument to Alty Karliev, the founder of
Turkmen cinema, was demolished, and Turkmenfilm named after Karliev was
renamed after Oguzkhan, in honor of the forefather of the Turkmen.
In 2003-2005, a campaign was held in Turkmenistan to transfer
Russian-speaking residents of the republic, mainly Slavs, to Turkmen
citizenship. The reason was the authorities' fears that in the event of
a possible aggravation of the internal political situation in
Turkmenistan, Russia would take measures to protect its citizens
permanently residing in the republic. Persons who did not want to
renounce Russian citizenship were deprived of Turkmen citizenship and
evicted from their apartments, after which tens of thousands of Slavs
were forced to urgently move to Russia.
In 2003, all heads of law
enforcement agencies, including the Prosecutor General's Office, were
dismissed.
In 2005, as part of the anti-corruption campaign
initiated by the country's president, a number of high-ranking officials
were deprived of their posts and, in accordance with the court's
decision, were sentenced to various prison terms.
On October 24,
2005, the Khalk Maslakhaty in full (2,506 people) rejected Niyazov's
bill on holding presidential elections in 2009. After this, Niyazov
proposed that the adoption of the law be considered simply postponed
until December 2009.
On April 10, 2006, Saparmurat Niyazov
retired the Prosecutor General of Turkmenistan, Kurbanbibi Atajanova,
for numerous violations; her position was taken by her former first
deputy, Mukhemmetguly Ogshukov. Atajanova held the position for 11
years. During this period, she became an "exposer" of trusted persons
such as Elly Kurbanmuradov, Rejep Saparov and many others who insulted
Niyazov with "treason".
On December 21, 2006, Saparmurat Niyazov
died of cardiac arrest. Deputy Prime Minister Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov
was appointed acting president until the next elections.
Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov won the elections on February 11, 2007,
receiving 89.23% of the votes.
On February 15, the president
signed a decree on reforming the education system, according to which
the "nine-year school" was abolished and a ten-year secondary education
was introduced, and in universities - 5-6 years.
On February 16,
the first two Internet cafes opened in Ashgabat. As of February 2019, 9
cafes with Internet access have opened in the country. In addition, in
an interview, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov said that there are plans to
introduce the Internet in schools.
We are currently working on
the issue of mass provision of Internet in schools
On February
20, the president signed a decree "On the establishment of the State
Commission for the consideration of citizens' appeals on the activities
of law enforcement agencies under the President of Turkmenistan",
which made it possible to review a number of cases in which hundreds of
people were sentenced to many years in prison as a result of the
unauthorized actions of officials.
On February 22, Turkmen
President Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov removed the mention of “Great
Turkmenbashi” from the “oath of allegiance” to the Motherland — a poetic
supplement to the national anthem invented during Niyazov’s rule.
Since February 28, local newspapers have replaced the portrait of
Saparmurat Niyazov on their front pages with a photo of the new
president, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov. Previously, the portrait was
accompanied by a quote from Niyazov’s book, the Ruhnama. Now, a fragment
of his inauguration speech is published under Berdimuhamedov’s photo.
Photos of former Turkmen President Niyazov have become less common on
newspaper pages. Tax legislation has been amended (healthcare
institutions no longer pay property tax, and medical services,
medicines, and medical equipment are subject to VAT).
On March
15, Berdimuhamedov signed a decree according to which the name of the
first president and “father of all Turkmens,” Saparmurat Niyazov, will
be removed from the presidential standard. Instead, the banner will be
decorated with the inscription: "President of Turkmenistan". The
president also cancelled the daily oath of allegiance to the republic
and its leader.
On March 17, the president, introducing the new
vice-premier Khydyr Saparlyev to members of the government, announced
that the Academy of Sciences, as well as rural clinics and military
departments in universities, would be revived in Turkmenistan.
Saparmurat Niyazov liquidated scientific institutes working in
fundamental and applied areas.
On January 1, 2008, currency
exchange offices, closed by Niyazov in 1998, opened in Turkmenistan, and
the Interbank Currency Exchange began operating.
In 2007-2008,
Turkmenistan returned to the names of months according to the Gregorian
calendar and the names of days of the week according to the solar Hijri.
Avenues were renamed back, and the golden statue of Turkmenbashi, which
rotated following the sun, was removed. This was done to combat
Niyazov's personality cult.
In January 2009, the names of Niyazov
and his relatives disappeared from the titles of Turkmen newspapers and
magazines.
On July 7, 2011, a series of explosions occurred at an
ammunition depot in the city of Abadan. Official media outlets in
Turkmenistan reported that a depot containing pyrotechnics exploded.
According to independent media outlets, the death toll from the
explosions in the city of Abadan was 200 people.
On February 12,
2012, presidential elections were held in Turkmenistan. The results of
the elections were announced at a meeting of the Central Electoral
Commission on February 15. In accordance with Article 51 of the Law "On
Elections of the President of Turkmenistan", candidate Gurbanguly
Berdimuhamedov received an absolute majority of votes (97.14%) and was
recognized as the elected president of Turkmenistan.
On January
3, 2013, a law on mass media came into force, prohibiting censorship. It
became the first law on mass media since 1991.
At the end of
January 2013, Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov put forward an initiative to
join the WTO.
On February 12, 2017, the next presidential
elections were held. In accordance with Article 76 of the Electoral Code
of Turkmenistan, the Central Election Commission announced that
candidate Gurbanguly Myalikgulyevich Berdimuhamedov, who received an
absolute majority of votes (97.69%), was recognized as the elected
president of Turkmenistan.
On March 12, 2022, the next
presidential elections were held. The current president Gurbanguly
Berdimuhamedov announced that he would not participate in them, as he
"must give way to the young." His son Serdar Berdimuhamedov won the
elections with 72.97% of the votes.
The first scientific evidence
of human settlement of the lands of modern Turkmenistan dates back to
the Neolithic era. In the eastern part of the Caspian region,
archaeological excavations have found numerous fragments of the remains
of settlements of hunters and fishermen, the best preserved of which are
located in the Jebel grotto.
The southern lands of Turkmenistan
were presumably the outskirts of the ancient agricultural cultures of
the Middle East, and it was in these territories that agriculture and
cattle breeding began to develop. This is eloquently evidenced by the
ancient agricultural settlement of Jeitun, found near the current
capital of the country, Ashgabat, dating back to the 6th century BC.
Historical finds were also discovered, indicating that in the
foothills of ancient Turkmenistan, farmers already lived a completely
sedentary life and built their houses from clay rollers - the
predecessors of adobe bricks, made ceramic dishes, and tools. In the
same Neolithic period, the first irrigation canals for watering the
lands began to appear in the area.
The development of agriculture
led to the fact that in the Bronze Age, the first settlements appeared,
which historians attribute to the proto-urban type; the most famous of
them are Namazga-Depe, Altyn-Depe, Kara-Depe, etc.
At that time,
the lands of southern Turkmenistan were part of various states. The
territory of the Murghab River basin was Margiana and was part of
Bactria, and the southwestern regions, such as Parthia and Hyrcania,
were part of Media.
From the 4th to the 6th centuries, the
territories of ancient Turkmenistan often changed hands, first they were
conquered by the Achmenids, then became the prey of Alexander the Great
and went to his successors. Later, during the reign of King Mithridates
II, the lands became part of the Parthian Kingdom, which quickly took a
leading position in the Ancient East, turning into one of the most
powerful states.
At that time, the capital of the kingdom - Merv
(modern Mary), due to its advantageous position on one of the busiest
highways of the Great Silk Road, turned into an important trade,
political, cultural and scientific center.
At the beginning of
the 8th century, the entire territory from the Caspian to the Amu Darya
was conquered by the Arab Caliphate and the local Turkic tribes, who had
adopted Islam by that time, began to establish trade relations with the
rest of the Muslim world.
Over time, the Arab influence gradually
weakened and the Oghuz Turks began to come to the territory of
Turkmenistan.
By the middle of the 11th century, the Arab
conquerors gave way to the Seljuks who replaced them, who received this
name from the name of their leader, Seljuk Ibn Tugak. The Oghuz were
very numerous and soon mixed with the local population, the result of
assimilation was a new nation, which received the name "Turkmens", and
the lands on which the people lived, accordingly - Turkmenistan.
In the 12th-13th centuries, Turkmenistan fell under the rule of the
Khorezmshahs, who in turn were expelled by the Mongol troops and from
1219 to 13** the country was part of the Mongol Empire. The next century
was marked by the widespread settlement of Turkmen tribes along the
eastern coast of the Caspian Sea, the lands of the northwestern part of
the Khorezm kingdom were occupied, as well as the territories of
southern Turkmenistan, where the Iranian-speaking population still
remained.
During the reign of the Chingizids, several Turkmen
tribes managed to achieve partial independence and founded feudal states
that were vassal-dependent on the Mongols, but already played a
significant role in the history of the nation.
The cultural sphere was already under state control under Niyazov, the new President Berdimuhamedov continued this policy at the beginning of his rule, issuing in October 2008 a Regulation on the creation of a commission under his office, which should evaluate "the artistic level of relevant creative works and issue permission for their publication, stage production, and filming."
The Turkmen carpet is one of the most famous hand-woven carpets produced by the Turkmen. The distinctive features of Turkmen carpets are their beauty and durability. At the end of the 20th century, carpet weaving in Turkmenistan became one of the important sectors of the economy. Among modern Turkmen carpets, the largest hand-woven carpet in the world stands out, with a total area of 301 m², which was woven in 2001 and entered into the Guinness Book of Records in 2003.
Turkmen cuisine is very close to the cuisines of other Central Asian nations in terms of technology and range of products. All Turkmen dishes have their own Turkmen names. For example, pilaf is called palov, dumplings are called borek, beshbarmak is dograma. The main products of Turkmen cuisine are meat and bread.
Sports have a long history in Turkmenistan. Many types of wrestling
are traditionally considered national sports, but currently the most
popular sports are football and wrestling.
In 2017, the capital
of Turkmenistan hosted the sports games "Aziada-2017", which featured
many indoor sports. For example: sambo, combat sambo, tennis, swimming
and many others. An Olympic village was built for this event, the
construction of which lasted from 2015 to 2017. Turkmen athletes have
won 245 awards, including 89 gold, 70 silver and 86 bronze medals.
In order to develop sports, sports schools have been built in each
etrap center of Turkmenistan. Sports competitions in various disciplines
are held almost monthly.
Football is one of the key areas of sports activity in the republic.
In Turkmenistan, football has been considered one of the most beloved
sports for many decades. The country has given the football world many
bright names, including representatives of many nationalities - Kurban
Berdyev, Bayram Durdyev, Valeri Nepomnyashchy, Vladimir Bayramov,
Arslanmurat Amanov, Ruslan Mingazov, Vitaly Kafanov, Dmitry Khomukha,
Artur Gevorkyan, Vyacheslav Krendelev, Rolan Gusev and others.
The Football Federation of Turkmenistan is an organization that controls
and manages football in the country; in 1994 it was accepted into the
AFC and FIFA.
At the first stage of independent development of Turkmenistan, its
education system (primary, secondary and higher) was preserved according
to the Soviet model. However, in 1993, President Saparmurat Niyazov
announced a new policy in this area; first of all, it affected secondary
schools, where the transition to a nine-year education began (at that
time, 860 thousand children studied in schools in the country annually,
71 thousand students in technical schools, and 40 thousand students in
universities).
Secondary education in Turkmenistan is carried out
in three-stage comprehensive schools for 12 years at the following
levels:
primary school - the first cycle of secondary education
lasting 4 years (grades 1-4);
secondary school - the second cycle of
secondary education lasting 4 years (grades 5-8);
high school - the
third cycle of secondary education, carried out over 4 years (grades
9-12).
Makhtumkuli Turkmen State University is the largest higher education institution in the country. It was founded on July 14, 1950, through the reorganization of the Ashgabat Pedagogical Institute, which had existed since 1931. Currently, it bears the name of the Turkmen poet Makhtumkuli.
Postgraduate education in Turkmenistan can be obtained at the National Academy of Sciences, which was restored in 2007. In 2013, 55 graduates of national universities were accepted to postgraduate studies, 2 more budget places appeared in doctoral studies, 42 in clinical residency, 241 places for applicants for the degree of candidate of sciences, 9 places for the degree of doctor of sciences.
In 2013, the Law on Mass Media came into force, which establishes the procedure for collecting, preparing and disseminating information in Turkmenistan, and also guarantees citizens of the country unimpeded access to foreign mass media, prohibits state bodies from censoring and counteracting the work of the media.
In 2012, there were 39 printed publications in Turkmenistan.
Only two newspapers - "Türkmenistan" and "Neutral Turkmenistan" - are
published 6 times a week, they are the main ones, while "Neutral
Turkmenistan" is the only newspaper in Russian.
There are
departmental newspapers - for example, "Mugallymlar Gazeti" - magazines
for schoolchildren, medicine, the President's magazine.
The
founder of almost all central newspapers is the President of
Turkmenistan.
All periodicals fully focus on the activities of
the President and the achievements of the Turkmen in various spheres of
the socio-economic and socio-political life of Turkmenistan.
Since October 1996, individuals and non-governmental organizations have
been prohibited from subscribing to foreign newspapers and magazines.
In 1997, Russian editorial offices of local newspapers were
liquidated in the velayats.
Since 2002, the import of Russian
press into the country has been completely prohibited; in 2008, this ban
was lifted.
There is a compulsory subscription of Turkmens at
their place of work to newspapers and magazines.
There is only
one state-owned information agency in Turkmenistan,
Turkmendovletkhabarlary.
The Union of Journalists of Turkmenistan
does not play a significant role in the country and does not influence
relations within the journalistic community.
The Turkish
newspaper Zaman, which has its own editorial office and independent
publishing base, is published in Turkmenistan on a permanent basis.
Television has been operating in Turkmenistan for over 50 years,
there are 7 national channels of terrestrial and cable television: Altyn
Asyr, Miras, Yashlyk, Turkmenistan, Turkmen Ovazy, Ashgabat, Sport.
The main television programs are stories about the political and
cultural life of the country. Despite the law on the media, there is
strict censorship on television. There is no live broadcast.
The
majority of the country's population uses satellite television
Radio broadcasting is also state-owned, 4 radio stations broadcast from
Ashgabat in the Turkmen language and the content of the programs is no
different from television. Broadcasting of the Mayak radio station was
stopped in July 2004.
The climate in the country is sharply continental, arid. The average temperature in January is -4 °C (in the Atrek River valley - +4 °C), in July - +28 °C.
The subsoil of Turkmenistan contains valuable minerals: oil and natural gas, sulfur, lead, mirabilite, iodine, bromine. The country also has a variety of raw materials for the finishing industry: limestone, marl, dolomite, granite, gypsum, refractory clays, quartz sand, gravel, pebbles. Such sectors of the national economy as the oil and fishing industries are closely related to the natural resources of the Caspian.
Nature reserves of Turkmenistan are territories with the status of research departments, created with the aim of preserving characteristic and rare natural complexes in their original form, studying natural processes and events. The largest reserves: Repetek, Kopetdag, Amu Darya and others.
The symbols of Turkmenistan as a sovereign state are its national flag, national emblem and national anthem. The description of the national symbols and the procedure for their use are determined by law.
On February 19, 1992, the current flag of Turkmenistan was approved.
On December 26, 1994, the President of Turkmenistan Saparmurat Niyazov
signed the Decree "On the Holiday of the National Flag of Turkmenistan".
Taking into account the fulfillment of the centuries-old dream of
the Turkmen people about an independent, self-sufficient state, the
respect and love of the people for the National Flag, as well as with
the aim of strengthening the sacredness of the National Flag in the
minds of people, turning it into national pride, nurturing a sense of
patriotism in the younger generation, I decree: annually on 19 Baydak
(February) to celebrate the holiday of the National Flag of Turkmenistan
and declare this day a non-working day.
The flag is a green cloth with a vertical red stripe and five
ornaments at the base of the flag. Olive branches are depicted at the
bottom of this stripe. Next to the stripe at the top edge of the flag is
a white crescent and five white stars. The five stars and patterns of
the Turkmen carpet represent the 5 velayats of the country. The olive
branches symbolize the neutrality of Turkmenistan proclaimed in 1995.
The anthem of Turkmenistan is called "The National Anthem of Independent, Neutral Turkmenistan". The melody of the anthem was written by the Turkmen composer Veli Mukhatov in 1997. Until 1997, the anthem of the Turkmen SSR was performed in Turkmenistan in a version without words as the official anthem. The anthem, known by the first phrase of the refrain "The Great Creation of Turkmenbashi", was in effect from 1997 to 2008. Since 2008, a new version of the anthem has been in effect, which does not contain elements of the personality cult of Saparmurat Niyazov.
The State Emblem of Turkmenistan is an eight-pointed star of green color with a yellow-gold border, in which two circles of blue and red colors are inscribed. The circles are separated from each other by yellow-gold stripes of the same width. On a green background of the eight-pointed star around a red circle are depicted the main elements of national wealth and symbols of the state: cotton, wheat. On the annular strip of the red circle, 2 diameters of the blue circle in size, five main carpet göls are depicted clockwise: teke, salyr, ersary, chovdur, yomut, which symbolize the friendship and unity of the Turkmen people. In the blue circle is depicted Yanardag - the Akhal-Teke horse of the first president of Turkmenistan Saparmurat Turkmenbashi, a representative of the classic sample of the Akhal-Teke breed.
According to the Constitution, Turkmenistan is a secular state. The
form of government is a presidential republic. The head of state is the
president.
The president for life of Turkmenistan until December
21, 2006 was Saparmurat Niyazov, proclaimed Turkmenbashi ("head of all
Turkmens"). After the death of Saparmurat Niyazov in 2006, Gurbanguly
Myalikgulyevich Berdimuhamedov was elected acting president, who soon
took office as president in February 2007 and held it until March 2022.
As a result of the early presidential elections on March 12, 2022, his
son, Serdar Gurbangulyevich Berdimuhamedov, became president.
The
legislative body is the Milli Gengesh of Turkmenistan, consisting of the
Halk Maslahaty, the upper house, and the Mejlis, the lower house,
consisting of 125 deputies. consists of 56 members. Of these, 48
mandates are elected from each velayat (region) and the city of
Ashgabat, on the basis of indirect suffrage by secret ballot at meetings
of the regional Halk Maslakhaty of five velayats and the city of
Ashgabat, and 8 members are appointed by the President of Turkmenistan.
Deputies of the Mejlis are elected for 5 years in single-mandate
constituencies. The competence of the Milli Gengesh is to adopt laws,
adopt and amend the Constitution.
Until 2013, only one legal
political party in this country was represented in the Mejlis - the
Democratic Party of Turkmenistan. On January 10, 2013, the Parliament of
Turkmenistan adopted a new law "On political parties". The law defines
the legal basis for the creation of political parties, the rights,
obligations, guarantees of the activities of parties, and also regulates
the relationship of political parties with government agencies and other
organizations.
On August 21, 2012, a second party was created in
the country - the Party of Industrialists and Entrepreneurs. Before
that, there was a one-party system in the country. In December 2013,
after the parliamentary elections, 2 political parties, as well as
organizations and non-party deputies, entered the Parliament. All
deputies fully support the government headed by the president. In 2014,
a third party appeared in the country - the Agrarian Party of
Turkmenistan.
From 1992 to 2008, the constitution specified
another legislative body - the appointed and elected Khalk Maslahaty
(People's Council, supra-parliament, 2507 members). It consisted of the
president, deputies of the Mejlis, people's representatives elected for
5 years, representatives of the judiciary, ministers, heads of regional
administrations (regions - velayats and districts - etraps),
representatives of public organizations, elders. The Khalk Maslakhaty
discussed issues of national policy (amendments to the constitution,
holding elections and referendums, approving national development
programs, etc. Sessions were held at least once a year. Saparmurat
Niyazov was the lifelong chairman of the Khalk Maslakhaty until 2007.
Then Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov was elected chairman. In accordance with
the amended Constitution, the People's Council ceased to exist, its
powers were transferred to the Mejlis and the president. The Khalk
Maslakhaty was re-established in accordance with the Constitutional Law
of Turkmenistan dated October 9, 2017 No. 617-V "On Amendments to the
Constitution of Turkmenistan". The first meeting was held on September
26, 2018.
On October 24, 2020, the then unicameral Mejlis of
Turkmenistan adopted the Republican Law "On the Milli Gengesh of
Turkmenistan" - on the country's new bicameral parliament. According to
it, "The activities of the Milli Gengesh of Turkmenistan are carried out
in accordance with the Constitution of Turkmenistan, this Law and other
regulatory legal acts of Turkmenistan regulating the activities of this
body." On November 4, 2020, President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly
Berdimuhamedov signed this law. On January 1, 2021, Turkmenistan moved
from a unicameral parliament to a bicameral one. Now the Mejlis, which
was previously the only and unicameral parliament of the country, became
the lower house, and the Halk Maslahaty, which previously existed as a
separate body from the Mejlis, became the upper house. It was decided to
call the new, bicameral parliament of the country "Milli Gengesh"
(Turkmen: Milli Geňeş) - "National Council".
As of February 2022, Turkmenistan has established diplomatic
relations with 151 countries in the world. There are 40 diplomatic
missions and consulates of Turkmenistan abroad. Diplomatic missions of
32 foreign states, as well as representative offices of 15 international
organizations operate in Turkmenistan.
The main partner countries
are Belarus, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkey, China. Turkmenistan
participates in many global and regional international organizations:
UN, OSCE, Non-Aligned Movement, ECO, OIC, WHO, IOM, IAEA, GECF, JTG,
SCO, UNICEF, UNESCO, WTO.
The number of foreign diplomatic
missions accredited in Turkmenistan is 79, of which only 32 have
embassies in Ashgabat. Several foreign countries have opened consular
offices in other cities of the country. Turkmenistan has embassies in 30
countries; in some countries there are only diplomatic missions of
Turkmenistan accredited concurrently. In Moldova and Syria,
Turkmenistan's embassies were closed due to the inappropriateness of
their work.
Limited privatization has been carried out in Turkmenistan, mainly in
the service sector. Industry, agriculture, energy, transport and
communications are mainly in the public sector. As a result, many public
services remain free and depend on subsidies.
In 2008, the labor
force was 2.3 million people. Agriculture employed 48% of the workforce,
industry 14%, and services 38%.
With large reserves of natural
gas (15-20 trillion cubic meters) and oil (1.5-2 billion tons),
Turkmenistan is the fourth largest exporter of fuel resources in the
world. However, problems with transportation and exploration complicate
the development of this sector of the economy, which accounts for
approximately 70% of the gross national product.
The main
industries include oil and natural gas refining and processing; glass,
fabrics (mainly cotton) and clothing; and the food industry. Industrial
development is slowing down due to the shrinking sales markets in the
CIS countries and strong fluctuations in world prices for raw materials.
Various types of transport are used to supply energy resources, the
main one being the Central Asia-Center gas pipeline, built in Soviet
times under the status of the All-Union Komsomol shock construction
project and commissioned in 1967. An agreement was signed on the
construction of the Trans-Caspian gas pipeline. Projects for the
construction of gas pipelines to Afghanistan, China, India and other
Asian countries are at various stages of development. The Nabucco main
gas pipeline was designed to transport gas to Europe bypassing Russia,
but then Western countries abandoned this idea.
During the period
of independence, the structure of sown areas completely changed. In
1990-2013, the main crop replaced cotton with wheat, the area under
which it was grown increased from 60 thousand hectares (4.4% of
irrigated land) to 860 thousand hectares (46.7% of irrigated land). The
profitability of wheat is much lower than that of cotton or grapes, but
as a result of significant subsidies from the authorities, the country
was able to switch to wheat exports by 2010.
Exports in 2017
amounted to $7.1 billion. The main exports are natural gas (83%), oil
(1.7%) and oil products (5.6%), cotton goods, textiles, carpets and
carpet products. The main buyers are China - 83%, Turkey - 5.6%, Italy -
1.8%.
Industrial products (machinery and equipment, including for
the gas industry), food, chemicals, medicines, and ferrous metallurgy
products are imported. In 2017, import volumes were estimated at $3.35
billion. The main suppliers are: Turkey — 30%, Germany — 12%, China —
11%, Russia — 10%.
Since January 1, 2020, the minimum wage in
Turkmenistan was 870 manat ($ 248.57) per month. Since January 1, 2020,
the base value for determining the minimum pension is 338 manat ($
96.57), and the base value for calculating state benefits is 322 manat
($ 92). From January 1, 2020, the minimum pension for WWII veterans is
1,415 manat ($404.29) per month, and the minimum pension for home front
workers is 415 manat ($118.57) per month. From January 1, 2022, the
minimum wage is 1,050 manat ($300.55) per month. From January 1, 2023,
the minimum wage is 1,160 manat ($332.04) per month, and the minimum
pension for WWII veterans is 1,880 manat ($538.13) per month.
Manat is the official currency of Turkmenistan, equal to 100 tenge. The ISO 4217 currency code is TMT. The manat has been in circulation since November 1, 1993. The Turkmen manat was denominated in 2009. The design of all modern banknotes was developed by the English company "Thomas de la Rue".
Turkmenistan has one of the worst internet freedoms in the world. The
country ranks 176th out of 180 countries in the Press Freedom Index.
During the rule of Saparmurat Niyazov, the internet was unofficially
banned. The first internet service provider in Ashgabat was created by
the Turkmen company Turkmentelecom. After Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov was
elected president, the internet began to develop.
The government,
however, prohibits access to well-known sites such as YouTube, Facebook,
Twitter, LiveJournal and restricts access to social networks. In early
February 2012, many anonymizers that allowed access to blocked sites
were blocked. The number of internet users in the country in 2012 was 5%
of the population.
There were two mobile operators in
Turkmenistan: the mobile communications company TM CELL and
MTS-Turkmenistan, but the latter's services were suspended at the
request of Turkmentelecom.
In 2014, the launch of the first
national space satellite was planned, which was produced by the French
company Thales Alenia Space. Initially, the launch was planned from the
Xichang Cosmodrome in southwest China. As a result, the TürkmenÄlem 52°E
satellite was launched by a SpaceX Falcon 9 launch vehicle from Cape
Canaveral at 23:03 UTC on April 27, 2015.
Tourism in the country has been developing rapidly in recent years.
Medical tourism has been especially intensive. First of all, this is due
to the creation of the Avaza tourist zone on the Caspian Sea coast.
Every tourist is required to obtain a visa before entering Turkmenistan.
In order to obtain a tourist visa, citizens of most countries need visa
support from a local travel agency.
For tourists visiting
Turkmenistan, excursion tours are organized with visits to historical
sites of Dashoguz, Kunya-Urgench, Ashgabat, Nisa, Merv, Mary, beach
tours to Avaza and health tours and holidays in Mollakar, Yyly Suva,
Archman.
In the 2018 Transparency International Corruption Perceptions Index, published on January 29, 2019, Turkmenistan ranked 161st among 180 countries, scoring only 20 points out of 100 (the higher the score, the lower the level of corruption). This is the lowest score among countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia.
Complaints about high corruption in Turkmenistan come from many foreign investors who have cooperated with the country on various projects. For example, contractors of the Turkmen state companies Turkmengallaonumleri, Turkmenneft, Turkmengaz and Turkmengeologiya have had problems with payment for work. Foreign contractors file lawsuits in international arbitration against Turkmenistan related to the country's violation of contractual obligations, including in the construction sector.
In October 2018, a lawsuit against Turkmenistan was filed in the
International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID) by
the German company Unionmatex Industrieanlagen GmbH, which was
represented in arbitration by two law firms: Gleiss Lutz and Schultze &
Braun (the case was registered on October 12, 2018 under number
ARB/18/35). According to the company's insolvency and bankruptcy
administrator, the claim is based on the German-Turkmen investment
agreement of 1997. The total amount of the claims is at least €32
million plus interest. ICSID accepted the claim of the bankruptcy
administrator of Unionmatex Industrieanlagen GmbH against Turkmenistan.
In 2008, Unionmatex signed a contract with the state organization
Turkmengallaonumleri (GALLA, formerly the Bread Products Association)
for the construction of five flour mills and two shopping centers with
bakeries on a turnkey basis. During the year, another contract was
signed for the construction of a third shopping center. The total amount
of the contracts was €144 million.
The company planned to
complete the construction in 2011. After the first freeze on
construction work in 2010, GALLA agreed to pay the German contractor €14
million in additional costs, but the agreement never went beyond that.
After failed high-level political negotiations, GALLA filed a lawsuit
against Unionmatex in a Turkmen court in August 2012, seeking to annul
the existing contracts. The court sided with the plaintiff and awarded
the projects to the Turkish developer. Unionmatex also alleged pressure
from the Turkmen government. The lawsuit that the company filed in turn
in a Turkmen court against GALLA in October 2012 for non-payment of
compensation and demanding the return of the construction equipment
confiscated by the Turkmen side was postponed for several years. The
situation led to the company's bankruptcy in 2014; it ceased operations
in Turkmenistan and filed for liquidation in 2014, citing the refusal of
Turkmengallaonumleri to pay for its construction work from 2008 to 2014.
The application also cited the customer’s constant interference in the
construction process, customs obstacles, and delays in issuing work
visas. In addition, there was no gas, water, or electricity at the
construction sites, which GALLA was responsible for providing. After
unsuccessful attempts to resolve the dispute out of court, Schultze &
Braun’s Dr. Dirk Herzig, representing Unionmatex, filed a lawsuit
against Turkmenistan in international arbitration.
As of
September 2019, no decision has been made on the lawsuit.
In January 2019, Belgorkhimprom filed a lawsuit with the Arbitration
Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce. The Belarusian company
demanded that the state concern of Turkmenistan, Turkmenhimiya, pay a
debt of more than $150 million for the work it carried out on the
turnkey construction of the Garlyk Mining and Processing Plant.
Belgorkhimprom began construction of the Garlyk Mining and Processing
Plant in June 2009. The cost of the project at that time was $ 1
billion. The planned capacity of the plant, according to the project,
was to be 1.4 million tons of fertilizers per year. On March 31, 2017,
Turkmenistan accepted the plant into operation. The opening was attended
by the President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov and the
President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko. An act of the state
acceptance commission was also signed. Immediately after this, the
Turkmen authorities announced plans to build a second potash plant; the
Belarusian side was supposed to support the project and complete its
underground infrastructure. On April 22, 2018, Lukashenko announced that
Belarus had been invited to build a second mining and processing plant,
the tender for which was announced on April 17, 2017. On May 10, the
Belarusian side announced that it was refusing to build a second plant,
since Turkmenistan had not paid for the construction of the Garlyk
mining and processing plant.
“The terms of the contract provided
for the operation of the plant by the Turkmen side under the supervision
of specialists from Belgorkhimprom. However, the Turkmen side refused to
pay for the work performed and did not allow Belarusian specialists to
provide technical support for the plant. According to available
information, the Turkmen side is trying to organize production on its
own, without having the necessary practical experience for this. There
are good reasons to believe that the plant is not being operated
properly,” Belgorkhimprom said in a statement on the website of the
Russian Arbitration Association.
Minsk received about $700
million; the unpaid amount for work completed and recognized by the
Turkmen amounted to $52 million, and another $25 million was hanging
without signatures. In an interview with the Belarusian news media
TUT.BY, Belgorkhimprom CEO Vyacheslav Korshun said that due to
non-payments, it was impossible to continue work on the remaining part
of Belgorkhimprom's support, and from March 16, 2018, the company was
forced to suspend the fulfillment of all obligations: "We set a
condition - to pay off the overdue debt in the amount of $52 million, at
the same time, we informed our partners that we were ready to continue
providing technical support services. However, the customer refused to
fulfill its obligation to provide technical data on the plant's
operation and did not allow our specialists to the site." The Belarusian
side also faced obstacles in exporting the company's construction
equipment worth more than $7 million from Turkmenistan — more than 60
units of equipment belonging to the Belarusian contractor, imported for
the project under the temporary import regime.
Turkmenkhimiya, in
turn, accused Belarus of disrupting construction deadlines and filed a
lawsuit with the Arbitration Institute at the Stockholm Chamber of
Commerce against Belgorkhimprom — the customer demanded that the
contractor compensate for damages for failure to fulfill contractual
obligations for the construction of the Garlyk potash mining complex.
On July 28, 2018, MTS filed a $750 million lawsuit against
Turkmenistan with the ICSID (International Center for Settlement of
Investment Disputes), stating that it had attempted to resolve the
dispute through pre-trial negotiations, which had yielded no results.
The basis for the lawsuit, according to the company, is Turkmenistan's
violation of MTS's rights as a foreign investor: in September 2017,
MTS-Turkmenistan stopped providing services to subscribers, since
Turkmentelecom no longer provided it with international and
long-distance zonal communications services and Internet access
services. According to the Turkmen side, MTS's motivation for filing the
lawsuit was the desire to exert information and psychological pressure
on the opponent and the desire of the company's management to justify to
shareholders the mistakes made in making strategic decisions. MTS stated
that it had the right to provide communications services until July 26,
2018. The company began operating in Turkmenistan in 2005 with the
acquisition of the local operator Barash Communications Technologies
Inc. (BCTI) for $46.7 million. Under the terms of the first agreement
with the Turkmen Ministry of Communications, valid until 2010, BCTI was
obliged to transfer 20% of its net profit to the country's budget. The
company also paid taxes.
In 2010, MTS ceased operations in
Turkmenistan until 2012, then signed another agreement with the
state-owned company Turkmentelecom - under it, MTS-Turkmenistan was
obliged to transfer 30% of its net profit to Turkmentelecom on a monthly
basis. In September 2017, the company suspended its operations in the
country. In July 2018, it filed a lawsuit for $750 million, and in April
2019, it filed a detailed lawsuit, declaring losses of up to $1.5
billion. The MTS press service explained the increase in the amount of
the claim by an examination conducted in March 2019.
The construction of new and modernization of existing highways plays
an important role in the development of the country. Due to the increase
in traffic flow, already built roads are being adjusted, and the
construction of new highways is planned (unavailable link). In order to
develop motor transport and strengthen the material and technical base,
the President of Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedov signed a decree
according to which the state concern "Turkmenavtoyollary" will purchase
MAZ vehicles under a contract with OOO "Trading House "Yarav" - the
official representative of the MAZ plant. A contract was also signed
with a Russian company for the construction of an interchange on the
highway of the city of Turkmenbashi.
Much attention has always
been paid to the construction of roads and motor transport. Thus, in
2006, the Minister of Motor Transport and Highways of Turkmenistan
Baimukhamet Kelov was dismissed from his post for theft of public funds
and shortcomings in his work.
As of the beginning of 2015, the
price of gasoline in Turkmenistan (1 manat per liter) was one of the
lowest in the CIS.
The largest cities of Turkmenistan are connected to Ashgabat and to each other by air traffic. The largest airport is located in Ashgabat, from where regular international flights are operated. In addition to Ashgabat, regular international flights are also operated from Turkmenbashi. The state organization in the sphere of management and regulation in Civil Aviation of Turkmenistan is the State National Service "Turkmenhowayollary". There are 6 international airports in the country.
The largest airline operating in the Turkmen air transportation market is Turkmenistan Airlines, the flag carrier of Turkmenistan. The passenger fleet of Turkmenistan Airlines consists of 21 aircraft of the American company Boeing: Boeing 717, Boeing 737, Boeing 757, Boeing 737-700, Boeing 737-800, and the long-range Boeing 777-200LR. The arsenal of Turkmenistan's aviators includes 3 Il-76 transport aircraft, as well as Mi-171, Sikorsky, and Super Puma helicopters. The state airline annually carries 1.8-1.9 million passengers on domestic and international routes. Turkmenistan Airlines operates regular flights to Moscow, London, Ankara, Frankfurt am Main, Birmingham, Bangkok, Delhi, Abu Dhabi, Amritsar, Beijing, Istanbul, Minsk, Almaty, St. Petersburg, Paris.
Since 1962, a ferry service has been operating from the Turkmenbashi
International Port to the Azerbaijani port of Baku and to the Astrakhan
port of Olya, as well as a domestic passenger route
Turkmenbashi-Gyzylsuv and Turkmenbashi-Khazar. In recent years, tanker
transportation of oil has increased sharply. The main port is
Turkmenbashi; it is connected by rail ferries with the ports of the
Caspian Sea coast (Baku, Aktau).
In 2013, construction of a new
port began, worth $ 2 billion, and it was opened in 2018. The project
envisages the construction of a ferry, passenger and cargo terminals on
an area of 1.2 million m²; a shipyard is planned to be built. The
country's first yacht club was also opened in Avaza.
Railways are one of the main modes of transport in Turkmenistan. Rail
transport has been used in Turkmenistan since 1880. Initially, it was
part of the Trans-Caspian Railway, then the Central Asian Railway, after
the collapse of the USSR, the railway network in Turkmenistan belongs
and is managed by the Ministry of Railway Transport. The total length of
railways as of 2012 is 3,550 km. There are no electrified roads.
Passenger service on Turkmenistan's railways is limited by the country's
state borders, with the exception of sections used for transit trains
from Tajikistan to Uzbekistan and beyond. In 2006, the Trans-Karakum
Railway was built. In 2014, the Kazakhstan-Turkmenistan-Iran railway was
opened, connecting 3 countries. Currently, the
Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Tajikistan railway is under construction.
In 1931, the Turkmenistan railway was the first in the world to be
equipped with heating using serial Eel diesel locomotives built at the
Kolomensky Plant, and in 1938, the Ashgabat diesel locomotive depot was
built. Since 1955, Turkmenistan railways have used exclusively diesel
traction. As of 2015, the locomotive fleet consists of Soviet diesel
locomotives of the 2TE10L, 2TE10U, 2M62U series, as well as several
Chinese-made diesel locomotives and Kazakh-made TE33A. Shunting work is
performed by TEM2, TEM2U, ChME3 diesel locomotives.
There is a large network of gas pipelines in Turkmenistan. The Caspian Gas Pipeline and Central Asia-Center gas pipelines are currently operating. In 2009, the Turkmenistan-China gas pipeline was commissioned, and in 2010, the Turkmenistan-Iran gas pipeline. Turkmenistan is actively involved in promoting the construction of the Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India (TAPI) gas pipeline.
Until the early 2000s, the population of Turkmenistan was growing at
a very rapid pace. According to the 1959 census, the actual population
of the country was 1.516 million; according to the 1979 census - 2.759
million; according to the 1989 census - 3.534 million; according to the
1995 census - 4.481 million people. From the end of 2006 to 2017, no
official publications on the country's population were made. The actual
population of the country is indirectly indicated by official data on
the results of the presidential elections: according to official data,
as of February 12, 2012, 2,987,324 voters were registered in the
country. In the elections to the Mejlis in December 2013, 3.063 million
voters were registered. In the presidential elections in February 2017,
3.252 million voters were registered in the country. According to
estimates of the age structure of the country's population, the share of
residents who have not reached the age of 18 and were not included in
the electorate is about 33% of the population, and the total number of
residents of the country will be about 4.88 million people. In mid-2013,
the US Census Bureau estimated the population of Turkmenistan at 5.113
million people, including the population aged 18 and over, according to
the same estimates, 3.448 million, which is more than the officially
published data on the number of voters.
In 2008, the UN
Department of Economic and Social Affairs estimated the population of
Turkmenistan at 4.936 million, in 2012 - 5.268 million, and in 2017 -
5.758 million.
In February 2015, opposition publications appeared
in which they claimed that they had learned the results of the census
conducted back in 2012 from anonymous unofficial sources. According to
these publications, the country's population should be 4,751,120 people;
by ethnic composition, 85.6% are Turkmen, 5.8% are Uzbeks, and 5.1% are
Russians. All others are listed as representatives of other
nationalities. Representatives of 58 nationalities live in the country.
In the March 2018 elections to the Mejlis, 3,291,312 voters were
registered in Turkmenistan, which reflects the population aged 18 and
over. According to unofficial data published in the independent press,
however, about 1.9 million people left Turkmenistan in 2008-2018, and by
some estimates, the actual population of Turkmenistan at the beginning
of 2019 could have been about 3.3 million people.
In January
2020, an official estimate of the country's population was published at
over 6.2 million people, but without specifying a specific date to which
this data relates.
In 2020-2021, preparations were made in
Turkmenistan for the next population and housing census in 2022, led by
the State Statistics Committee of Turkmenistan (Goskomstat). Opposition
information resources are spreading claims that the allegedly
preliminary informal estimates of the actual population as of mid-2021,
collected by Goskomstat officials in preparation for the census,
differed greatly from the official figures and gave an estimate of about
2.7-2.8 million people, which could mean ongoing depopulation of the
country. According to the Central Election Commission of Turkmenistan,
3,435,950 voters were registered in the early presidential elections of
Turkmenistan in March 2022, which is equal to the official estimate of
the adult (18 years and older) population of the country, and taking
into account minors (their share is estimated at about 30%), the
country's population may slightly exceed 5 million residents. The
relatively small number of registered voters in the capital of the
country is noteworthy: 452,139 people. This figure is less than half of
the officially declared population of Ashgabat, which, according to
official claims, should exceed 1 million.
The total fertility
rate in 2021 was 2.04 children per woman.
On July 17, 2023, the
official results of the population census were published. This census
(the third since Turkmenistan became independent, the results of the
previous census in 2012 were never published) was conducted in December
2022. According to official data, the country's population was 7,057,841
residents. The published figure is significantly higher than the UN
population estimates - 6.43 million residents in 2022, as well as the
official number of voters, that is, citizens aged 18 and older, which in
2022 was 3,435,950 people, which would mean that 3,621,891 residents of
the country (51.32%) are under 18 years of age, while according to the
official 2022 census data, the share of residents under working age was
only 34.9%. Although the results of the previous census in 2012 have not
yet been published explicitly, the population size according to the 2012
census can be determined from the officially published data on the total
living space recorded in the 2022 census - 165,167,523 square meters,
which is 24.5% more than in 2012 (this makes it possible to determine
the total living space in 2012 as 132.67 million square meters), as well
as the living space per capita in 2022 at 23.8 square meters per person,
which is 3% higher than in 2012 (this makes it possible to determine the
average living space per person in 2012 as 22.7 square meters); for
2012, a comparison of the total area of 132.67 million square meters
and the figure of 22.7 square meters per person yields a population size
of over 5.8 million inhabitants in 2012; this means a population growth
of 20.2% over the period 2012-2022.
The overwhelming majority of Turkmenistan's population are Muslims
(mainly Sunni) - 89-90%. Christians make up about 9% of the population,
other faiths - 2%. All permitted religious faiths are under strict
control of state bodies - in 1994, a Gengesh ("Council") for religious
affairs was created to oversee them, which included a mufti, deputy
mufti, Orthodox dean and civil servant. Members of the Gengesh for
religious affairs, despite the secular nature of the state, began to
receive salaries from the budget in the same way as members of the
velayat councils for religious affairs (they are headed by local chief
imams). In 2016, a new law "On Freedom of Religion and Religious
Organizations" came into force in Turkmenistan, which does not mention
the Gengesh, but instead created a special state Commission for work
with religious organizations and the examination of resources containing
religious information, publishing and printing products in Turkmenistan,
which is vested with a number of powers to supervise religious
organizations. In particular, it is this Commission that approves the
head of a religious organization whose center is located abroad. It also
carries out an examination of all religious literature received from
abroad. The state strictly limits religious education. The 2016 law
completely prohibits private teaching of religion, and teaching children
religious doctrine is allowed only with the consent of the
above-mentioned Commission. All spiritual educational institutions must
obtain a license, and teachers of religious disciplines are required to
have a special spiritual education and permission from the
above-mentioned Commission. The state does not limit the possibility of
the Hajj - in 2015, 188 people received permission to make a pilgrimage
to Mecca by decree of the country's president.
According to the
results of a study by the international Christian charity organization
Open Doors for 2015, Turkmenistan ranks 20th in the list of countries
where the rights of Christians are most often oppressed. Most of the
country's Christians are Orthodox. There are also a number of Protestant
churches in Turkmenistan - Pentecostals (about 1,100), Baptists,
Lutherans, Adventists, etc. Since March 2010, the Roman Catholic Center
has been operating in the country.
The official language of Turkmenistan is Turkmen, which belongs to
the Oghuz group of Turkic languages. In addition to Turkmenistan, the
language is also widespread in Iran, Afghanistan, Turkey, Iraq,
Karakalpakstan, Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, in the Stavropol
Territory and in the Astrakhan Region of Russia.
In Turkmenistan,
in addition to the Turkmen language, Russian is widely spoken, and
English, Uzbek and Balochi (in several villages of the Mary oasis) are
also used.
The size of the army of Turkmenistan is limited due to the neutral
status of the country. It is small, comprising 36,500 people, ranking
92nd in the list of countries by the number of active troops.
Military conscription in Turkmenistan takes place twice a year: from
April 1 to June 30; from October 1 to December 31. The draft age is from
18 to 27 years. The service life of citizens is 24 months.
The
main types of tanks are T-90S, T-72. Combat vehicles are
BMP-1/BMP-2/BMP-3, BRM-1K, BRDM-1/BRDM-2. Armored personnel carrier -
BRDM-1/BRDM-2. Anti-tank gun - MT-12. Anti-tank guided missile Malyutka
(ATGM), Konkurs (ATGM), Shturm (ATGM), Metis (ATGM). Multiple launch
rocket system: BM-21 Grad, BM-21 Grad-1, BM-27 Uragan, BM-30 Smerch.
Artillery systems: 2S9 Nona-S, 2S1 Gvozdika, 2S3 Akatsiya, 122 mm
howitzer D-30, 152 mm gun-howitzer D-1, 152 mm gun-howitzer D-20, PM-38.
After the division of the Red Banner Turkestan Military District of the USSR between the independent states of Central Asia, Turkmenistan received the largest aviation group in Central Asia, stationed at two large bases - near the city of Mary and Ashgabat. The Air Force is armed with up to 250 helicopters and aircraft of various systems.
The Turkmen Navy is currently subordinate to the Border Troops Command. The fleet's main base is located in the port of Turkmenbashi (formerly Krasnovodsk). A small river flotilla base is located in the village of Kelif on the Amu Darya.
On June 23, 2008, the international non-governmental organization
Amnesty International released a report on systematic human rights
violations in Turkmenistan.
The report indicates that the
government that came to power in December 2006 has done little to
address the violations that caused concern to Amnesty International and
other human rights organizations. It notes changes that occurred from
December 2006 to June 16, 2008 inclusive. However, it emphasizes the
systematic human rights violations that took root during the rule of
President Niyazov and were continuing at the time of writing.
The
report provides documented evidence of non-observance of the following
human rights in Turkmenistan:
the right to freedom of speech;
the
right to freedom of association;
the right to freedom of religion and
belief;
the right to a fair trial, especially in politically
motivated cases;
the right to freedom from torture and other
ill-treatment;
the right to alternative civilian service (for
conscientious objectors to military service);
the right to freedom of
movement and the right to freely choose one's place of residence;
the
right to freedom from discrimination.
Hero of Turkmenistan is the highest honorary title in Turkmenistan.
The Golden Crescent Medal is a medal awarded for receiving the title
Hero of Turkmenistan.
The Order of Turkmenbashi is for exceptional
bravery, dedication, and courage shown in defending the Fatherland.
The Order of the President of Turkmenistan "Bitaraplyk" is for a major
contribution to the establishment and recognition of the permanent
neutrality of independent Turkmenistan.
The Order of the President's
Star — for outstanding services in defending the Motherland, developing
friendship and cooperation between peoples.
The Order of Saparmurat
Turkmenbashi the Great — is awarded to statesmen and public figures, as
well as senior officials of foreign countries for strengthening peace in
the region.
Asteroid 2584, discovered on March 23, 1979 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh in the Crimean Observatory, is named after Turkmenistan.