Xinjiang (Chinese: 新疆, Xīnjiāng) is an autonomous region in the
west of the People's Republic of China. Xinjiang (新疆) means "new
border" and is an autonomous province of the People's Republic of
China.
Xinjiang, still known to us by its old transliteration
Sinkiang, borders the Chinese provinces of Gansu, Qinghai and Tibet.
Other neighboring countries are India, Pakistan, Afghanistan,
Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia and Mongolia, although
the border in the Kashmir area is not undisputed. Since ancient
times, two caravan routes have run between the few oases, one
northern and one southern around the Takamaklan Desert, which Sven
Hedin called the "Silk Road".
Under various dynasties in
ancient times, the Chinese central power sometimes exercised more,
often less control over the region. Because of its remoteness, it
was always a place of exile. In the 1760s and again in 1870, the
Manchu dynasty used force to assert its claim against advancing
Russians and, above all, the Islamic steppe peoples.
After
the end of the Tsarist Empire, an estimated 200,000-300,000 (semi)
nomadic Kazakhs and Kirghiz remained in northern Xinjiang, which
came increasingly under Soviet influence during the turmoil of the
Chinese civil war from 1926 to 1944. Three warlords raged here in
those years. Around 67,000 descendants of the nomadic immigrants
returned to the Soviet Union in 1959/60. There is a diversity of
peoples in Dzungaria, there are many Kazakhs and Mongolians as well
as an increasing number of Han Chinese immigrants since the region
was planned to be developed in 1958 in order to use the discovered
raw material wealth for the industrializing China after liberation.
35 of China's recognized minorities live here. In various local
authorities assigned to a people ("autonomous county/district"), the
respective language and culture are promoted as part of the policy
known as Yōuhuì zhèngcè (优惠政策/優惠政策), which has been in effect since
1951. This is the case even though the protected people only make up
a small proportion of their territory. The southern Tarim region in
particular is the land of the Islamized Uighurs, who also make up
the majority of the population here. The word "Uighur" in its
current meaning is a term coined in 1921 at the Soviet Congress of
Minorities in Tashkent, which is based on the medieval Uighur
Empire. In feudal times, people generally spoke of "Turki" or
"Taranchi" for those who had immigrated to the Ili region. "Hui" are
also Muslims, but sinicized.
Ürümqi (乌鲁木齐), the capital of the region
Turfan, an oasis town on
the northern route of the Silk Road
Kashgar (喀什), an oasis town and
hub on the "Silk Road."
Kumul also known as Hami.
Yining
1 EPIA: equidistant 2648km to Baidarata Bay, Bay of Bengal and the
Gulf of Bohai. Accessible via an agricultural track that begins next to
an irrigation canal between the village of Yībāsì tuán sìlian (一八四团四𨓋
in the locality of Hoxtolgay (和什托洛盖镇) with a train stop) and crosses the
Urumqui Expressway S21 south of Fuhai. At the closest point you are less
than 600 meters from the point.
2 EPIA1: 2510 ± 10km from the mouth
of the Ob, the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. An expedition would
only be possible about 35km south of the highway at Jīnghé, but
unfortunately there are several mountains over 2600 meters high in the
way. It would not be much better from Yining to the south.
3 EPIA2:
equidistant 2514 ± 7km from the mouth of the Ob, the Bay of Bengal and
the Gulf of Bohai. In the Gurbantünggüt desert, this point can be
reached after almost 50km cross-country from National Road 216 with an
off-road vehicle and GPS (note the official government deviation).
Jiaohe (交河古城)
UNESCO World Heritage The ruins of Jiaohe are about
8 km west of Turfan. The ruins themselves are not very impressive, but
they give a good impression of what life must have been like in the
ancient desert cities.
Kares (坎儿井)
UNESCO World Heritage The
Kares is the historical irrigation system of Turfan. There is a museum
there.
Tuyoq (吐峪沟)
The village is a green oasis surrounded by
the Flame Mountains. The place is not yet well known, so you won't find
the usual tourist buses here. For the Uighur Muslims it is a place of
pilgrimage. Those who cannot afford a trip to Mecca can make seven trips
to Tuyoq instead to pray at the grave of the first Uighur Muslim; this
has the same effect as a trip to Mecca. Tourists who want to visit the
tomb have to pay an entrance fee. A visit here is worthwhile.
In
the mountainside to the east there are former Buddhist temple caves.
Karakorum Highway & Karakul Lake
The Karakorum Highway is part of
the former legendary Silk Road. You can get from Kashgar to Karakul Lake
(喀拉库勒湖) via this highway. The journey takes you through a beautiful
mountain landscape. On the way you come across grazing camels, yaks and
sheep. You can also see some smaller settlements with yurts in which the
Tajiks live.
Karakul Lake (= Karakol Lake) is located at an
altitude of 3600 meters at the foot of Mustak Ata. This lake is also
very touristy during the day. The men from the village, which is an
hour's walk on the other side of the lake, offer the opportunity to go
on short to medium-length tours on a horse or a camel.
The dried-up salt lake Lop Nor (大耳朵/罗布泊, Pinyin: Dàěrduǒ, renamed in 1971) is located at an altitude of 780m at the lowest point in the Tarim Basin. The Lop Nor nuclear weapons test site, which is probably better known in Europe, is about 250 km northwest of the salt lake.
In the autonomous province of Xinjiang, the Uighurs make up the majority of the population in the south. Although you are in China, you won't get very far with standard Chinese. Most Uighurs can speak Chinese, the others don't want to. This means that the main language in southern Xinjiang is Uighur. A few words will help to break the ice immediately.
The routes are long and often lead through desert-like, uninhabited
areas. If you are traveling away from the highways, an average speed of
40 km/h is normal. After 2000, massive investments were made in the
infrastructure and many transport routes were greatly improved.
Within the country, you can fly to Urumqi from almost anywhere. You can
also travel through the province itself by plane.
There is now a
high-speed train from Beijing that only takes 18 hours. Otherwise, you
can also travel cheaply by bus or hire a taxi to certain places.
By road
The "mother of all roads" G31, which connects Korgas with
Shanghai across China, runs east-west through the north of the region,
and the G30 motorway is largely built parallel to it.
Around the
Takamaklan, the northern route from Korla (Bayingolin) via Aksu, Kashgar
to Khotan is built as national road 314 and parallel to it as G3012,
which is also motorway-like. South of Korla, national road 315 goes
around the desert to the south as far as Khotan.
Pakistan: Travel
to Pakistan is possible from June to November on the Karakorum Highway.
It is important to have your travel documents and visa ready beforehand,
otherwise you will not be allowed out of China.
There are land
border crossings with Kazakhstan in Korgas, Tacheng and Alashankou,
which can be reached by public transport. The two pass roads with
Kyrgyzstan are more remote. The border post at the Kulma Pass with
Tajikistan at 4362 m, which is only open for a very limited time, cannot
be reached without your own vehicle (or an expensive taxi from Kashgar).
By train
There is a train connection from Ürümqi to Kashgar, but
the journey takes around 24 hours. Since 2022 it has been possible to
travel around the Takamaklan Desert completely by train. The train
journeys totaling 2700 km stop at 22 stations. The more important ones
are (clockwise): (Ürümgi - Turfan - ) Korla (Bayingolin) - Ruoquaiang
(km 450; Golmud junction) - Khotan (km 1361) - Kashgar (km 1819) - Aksu
(km 2284) - Korla.
Nan - a special specialty. Delicious round breads freshly prepared in
stone ovens. They differ from the Indian variety in their greater
firmness and variety of spices.
Samsas - thicker baked dumplings
filled with mutton.
Laghman - hand-pulled noodles served with a
mixture of peppers, mutton, tomatoes, eggplant and lots of fresh garlic.
In terms of thickness, they resemble Japanese udon.
Kebab - made
from mutton with a mandatory lot of fat, you can get it anywhere.
The nightlife in Urumqi, Turfan and Kashgar takes place at the night markets. Regional culinary specialties are offered there. People eat together and chat.
The people in Xinjiang are very friendly. Driving by car and bus, on the other hand, is dangerous. There is no obligation to wear seat belts and it seems as if there are no traffic rules. Taxi drivers in particular have a very fast and risky driving style. It has already happened that tourists travelling alone have been sexually harassed. In any case, women should make sure to wear clothing appropriate for a Muslim country (covered arms and legs).
The climate is characterized by continental high mountains with short, hot summers. There is regular rainfall in the large mountains. Even in July and August, the nights are cool in the western highlands. The Tarim Basin has a desert climate. June to September are good months for travel. From December to February, the daily maximum temperatures rarely reach more than -10 °C.
As there is only one time zone in China, namely "Beijing time" (UTC
+8), which differs from local conditions by around 2¼ hours, sunrise in
January is around 9:45 a.m. and sunset around 6:45 p.m. For September
and March it is 8:00 a.m./7:45 p.m. respectively, and in June 6:45
a.m./9:45 p.m.
Especially in the border regions, "Kazakhstan
time" (UTC +6) is used in everyday life. It should be noted that all
official time information, such as train timetables, works according to
Beijing time.
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR), often simply called
Xinjiang, is China's largest provincial-level administrative division
and one of the world's most geographically dramatic inland regions.
Located in the far northwest of the country at approximately 41°N 85°E,
it covers about 1,664,897 km² (roughly the size of Alaska or three times
the size of France), accounting for roughly one-sixth of China's total
land area.
It sits at the crossroads of Central and East Asia, far
from any ocean, which profoundly shapes its arid character. Xinjiang
borders eight countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, India (administering disputed Aksai Chin and
Trans-Karakoram Tract areas), Mongolia, and Russia. To the east and
south, it adjoins Gansu, Qinghai, and the Tibet Autonomous Region. Its
rugged borders are defined by towering mountain ranges, including the
Karakoram, Kunlun, and Tian Shan.
Topography: "Three Mountains
and Two Basins"
Xinjiang's defining feature is its "Three Mountains
and Two Basins" structure, running roughly east-west. This creates a
stark contrast between high, glaciated peaks and vast, arid lowlands.
Northern Highlands and Altai Mountains: In the far north, the Altai
Mountains (shared with Mongolia) form a semicircular barrier with
gentler Chinese slopes, average elevations around 1,400–4,500 m, and
rolling hills.
Tian Shan (Heavenly Mountains): This massive east-west
range bisects Xinjiang, stretching ~1,760 km within the region (part of
a larger 2,500 km system). It separates northern and southern Xinjiang
and occupies about one-fourth of the region's area. Peaks exceed 7,000 m
in the west (e.g., Tomur Peak at 7,443 m or Victory Peak at 7,439 m);
the eastern sections are lower but still host extensive glaciers and
snowfields. The range acts as a "wet island" in the desert sea, blocking
moisture and creating distinct north-south climates.
Southern Ranges
(Kunlun, Karakoram, Pamir): The Kunlun Mountains form the southern rim
along the Tibet border, while the Pamir and Karakoram (southwest)
include China's (and the world's second-highest) peak, K2 at 8,611 m on
the Pakistan border. These ranges are geologically young, formed by the
Indian-Eurasian plate collision, making the area seismically active.
The two major basins are:
Junggar (Dzungarian) Basin (north of
Tian Shan): A triangular depression (~380,000 km²) open to the east and
west, with the Gurbantünggüt Desert at its center (China's
second-largest desert). It features steppe grasslands, oases at mountain
foothills, and the continental pole of inaccessibility in Eurasia
(farthest point from any ocean, ~2,647 km inland).
Tarim Basin (south
of Tian Shan): China's largest inland basin, dominated by the Taklamakan
Desert (world's second-largest shifting-sand desert, ~337,000 km²).
Oases ring its edges at the base of the surrounding mountains,
supporting nearly all human settlement. A smaller Ili River valley wedge
lies in the northwest.
Eastern features include the Turpan Depression
(one of the world's lowest points) and the Kumtag Desert. Only about
9.7% of Xinjiang is habitable, concentrated in narrow oasis belts.
Elevation Extremes and Unique Features
Highest point: K2 (8,611
m) in the Karakoram.
Lowest point: Aydingkol Lake in the Turpan
Depression at -154 m (China's lowest land point; second-lowest on Earth
after the Dead Sea).
Other notables: The Tian Shan creates
altitudinal zonation (permafrost above ~2,700–3,700 m); a "center point
of Asia" monument near Ürümqi.
Geologically, older cratonic rocks
appear in the far north and east, contrasting with the younger fold
mountains.
Hydrography: Mostly Endorheic Drainage
Xinjiang is
predominantly endorheic (inland drainage)—rivers rarely reach the sea
due to high evaporation and desert sinks. Glaciers in the Tian Shan,
Altai, and Kunlun provide critical meltwater for oases.
Major
rivers:
Tarim River: China's longest inland river; flows across the
Tarim Basin but is heavily dammed and diverted for irrigation, often
disappearing before Lop Nur (now a salt lake and potash source).
Ili
River: Largest by volume; flows from the Tian Shan into Kazakhstan's
Lake Balkhash.
Irtysh River (Ertix): The only exorheic river in
Xinjiang; originates in the Altai and ultimately reaches the Arctic
Ocean via Kazakhstan and Russia (partially diverted by canal).
Lakes: Bosten Lake (largest freshwater in the Tarim Basin), Tianchi
(Heavenly Lake) in the Tian Shan, Kanas Lake, Ulungur Lake, and
shrinking saline lakes like Lop Nur and Manas. Glacial melt feeds many
alpine lakes and streams.
Climate: Extreme Continental Arid
Xinjiang has a classic temperate continental arid climate (Köppen
BSk/BWk), with vast seasonal and daily temperature swings, low
precipitation (annual average ~150 mm, as low as 31 mm in some deserts),
intense evaporation, and abundant sunshine.
North (Junggar):
Slightly more precipitation supports steppe and pastures; colder
winters.
South (Tarim): Hyper-arid deserts with extreme heat (Turpan
often exceeds 40–49°C).
Mountains: Cooler, wetter "wet islands" with
heavy snow and glaciers.
Extremes: Record low -52.3°C (Feb 2024); hot
summers in depressions; permafrost in high Tian Shan.
Precipitation comes mainly from westerly Atlantic/Arctic moisture,
heaviest in mountains. The region is sensitive to climate change, with
accelerating water cycles noted in recent studies.
Ecoregions and
Natural Setting
The landscape transitions from alpine meadows and
coniferous forests (Siberian larch, spruce) in the mountains to desert
shrublands, grasslands, and vast sand seas. Oases rely on karez
(underground aqueducts) and river irrigation for agriculture (melons,
grapes, cotton). Biodiversity includes rare species in reserves like the
Altun Mountains.
Xinjiang's geography—isolated basins, high ranges,
and extreme aridity—has historically made it a Silk Road corridor while
limiting dense settlement to oases. Major cities like Ürümqi (capital,
north of Tian Shan), Kashgar, Korla, and Hotan cluster in these
habitable zones.
Prehistory and Early Inhabitants (Before 2nd Century BCE)
The
earliest known inhabitants of the Tarim Basin were not Turkic or Han but
primarily Indo-European peoples. The famous Tarim mummies (dating to
~1800 BCE or earlier) show Caucasoid features, with some wearing woolen
clothing, felt hats, and showing evidence of advanced textile and dairy
technologies linked to ancient North Eurasian and Northeast Asian
ancestries. These include the "Beauty of Loulan" and other
well-preserved bodies found in desert oases.
By the 1st millennium
BCE, nomadic groups like the Yuezhi, Saka (Indo-Iranian), and Wusun
dominated parts of the region, alongside sedentary oasis farmers
speaking Tocharian languages (an Indo-European branch) in the north/east
Tarim (e.g., Turpan, Kucha). The area was known in early Chinese texts
like the Shan Hai Jing as inhabited by "white people with long hair."
Jade from local mountains supplied distant China, and conflicts with the
Xiongnu (a nomadic confederation from the Mongolian steppes) shaped
early dynamics.
Han Dynasty and the Western Regions (2nd Century
BCE–3rd Century CE)
Chinese influence began under the Han dynasty
(206 BCE–220 CE) during the Han–Xiongnu Wars. In 60 BCE, the Han
established the Protectorate of the Western Regions (Xiyu) at Wulei
(near modern Luntai), administering oasis states in the Tarim Basin
(inhabited by Tocharians and Saka) through military colonies, tribute
systems, and garrisons. This opened the Northern Silk Road, trading
Chinese silk for Western goods (horses from Ferghana, glass, wool).
The Han had little direct control over Dzungaria (held by Xiongnu and
Wusun). Control waxed and waned; it lapsed during Wang Mang’s
interregnum (9–25 CE) and was reasserted sporadically until the early
3rd century. Buddhism began entering via the Kushan Empire (1st–3rd
centuries CE) from the west.
Post-Han Fragmentation, Turkic Rise,
and Tang Influence (3rd–9th Centuries)
After the Han collapse, local
city-states (Khotan, Kashgar/Shule, Kucha/Qiuci, Turpan/Gaochang) and
nomadic powers (Rouran, Hephthalites/White Huns) dominated. The First
Turkic Khaganate (6th century) and its successors brought
Turkic-speaking nomads.
The Tang dynasty (618–907 CE) reasserted
strong influence, establishing the Anxi Protectorate (640 CE) and
Beiting Protectorate. Tang forces, allied with Uyghurs, defeated Western
Turks and controlled much of Central Asia until the An Lushan Rebellion
(755–763 CE) weakened them, allowing Tibetan incursions. Buddhism
flourished in the oases, with rich monastic culture.
The Uyghur
Khaganate (744–840 CE) in Mongolia allied with the Tang against rebels.
After its collapse (defeated by Kyrgyz), Uyghurs migrated southward,
founding the Kingdom of Qocho (Kara-Khoja) near Turpan—a Buddhist,
multicultural state with Tocharian, Sogdian, and Chinese influences.
Islamization and the Kara-Khanid Era (10th–13th Centuries)
The
pivotal shift came with the Kara-Khanid Khanate (10th–13th centuries), a
Turkic Muslim dynasty. Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam ~966
CE; by 1006 CE, they conquered Buddhist Khotan, accelerating
Turkification and Islamization of the Tarim Basin. The region
transitioned from predominantly Buddhist/Tocharian to Turkic Muslim,
with Uyghur-related groups playing key roles. Buddhism persisted longer
in Qocho until the 15th century.
Mongol Empire and
Chagatai/Moghulistan Khanates (13th–17th Centuries)
Genghis Khan
conquered the region in the early 13th century. Uyghurs of Qocho
submitted voluntarily in 1209 and served as administrators in the Mongol
Empire. After the empire fragmented, the Chagatai Khanate (named after
Genghis’s son) ruled Central Asia, later splitting into Moghulistan
(eastern part, including Xinjiang).
Islam spread further under
Chagatai rulers. The Yarkand Khanate and other Turco-Mongol states
emerged. By the 15th–16th centuries, the population of the Tarim Basin
was largely Turkic Muslim, while Dzungaria remained under Oirat Mongol
(Buddhist) influence.
Dzungar Khanate and Qing Conquest
(17th–19th Centuries)
In the 17th century, the Dzungar Khanate (Oirat
Mongols) rose in Dzungaria, conquering the Tarim Basin in the 1680s and
ruling through puppet Khoja (Naqshbandi Sufi) leaders. They extracted
heavy taxes from southern oases.
The Qing dynasty (Manchu) decisively
defeated the Dzungars in the 1750s (under Emperor Qianlong),
incorporating Dzungaria and the Tarim Basin. Qing forces resettled Han,
Hui, and loyal Muslims from Gansu into northern oases. A major rebellion
led by Yakub Beg (from Kokand) created the short-lived Emirate of
Yettishar (1865–1877) in the south. After Qing reconquest, the region
was formally organized as Xinjiang Province in 1884—the first time the
entire area (north and south) was unified under one Chinese provincial
administration.
Republican Era, Warlords, and Independence
Movements (1912–1949)
After the 1911 Revolution, Xinjiang became a
province of the Republic of China but was ruled by successive warlords:
Yang Zengxin (1912–1928), Jin Shuren (1928–1933), and Sheng Shicai
(1933–1944), who aligned variably with the Soviets. Ethnic tensions and
economic exploitation sparked rebellions.
In 1933, Uyghur and other
Turkic leaders declared the short-lived First East Turkestan Republic in
Kashgar (destroyed in 1934). In 1944, the Ili Rebellion (Soviet-backed)
led to the Second East Turkestan Republic in northern Xinjiang (Ili,
Tarbaghatay, Altay), lasting until 1949. The rest of the province
remained under Kuomintang control until the Chinese Civil War’s end.
People’s Republic of China Era (1949–Present)
In 1949, the
People’s Liberation Army (PLA) incorporated Xinjiang peacefully after
negotiations; the remaining Republic of China forces surrendered. The
Chinese Communist Party established the Xinjiang Production and
Construction Corps (XPCC or Bingtuan) in 1954—a paramilitary-economic
organization of demobilized soldiers that settled Han migrants,
developed agriculture, and secured borders (especially against the
Soviet Union).
On October 1, 1955, Xinjiang became the Xinjiang
Uyghur Autonomous Region, one of five such regions, with nominal
autonomy for ethnic minorities (Uyghurs officially recognized as a
distinct group). Early PRC policies included land reform,
infrastructure, and respect for local customs, alongside heavy Han
migration into sparsely populated Dzungaria. The 1953 census showed
Uyghurs at ~74% of the population; by 2020, this had shifted due to
migration, economic development, and other factors.
The Great Leap
Forward and Cultural Revolution (1958–1976) brought disruptions,
famines, and radical policies. Sino-Soviet tensions in the 1960s led to
border clashes and defections. Post-1978 reforms brought economic
growth, oil/gas development, and infrastructure, but also ethnic
tensions over resources, migration, and cultural/religious policies.