Location: western Mumbai, Maharashtra state Map
The Kanheri Caves (Kānherī-guhā) are a major group of 109
rock-cut Buddhist caves and monuments excavated into a massive
basalt outcrop (volcanic breccia) on a hillside in
Sanjay Gandhi National Park, on Salsette Island in the
western outskirts of Mumbai, Maharashtra, India (about 6 miles from
Thane, near Tulsi Lake).
The name derives from Sanskrit
Krishnagiri ("black mountain"), referring to the dark basalt rock.
Accessible via rock-cut steps, the site features viharas
(monasteries for living, studying, and meditating), chaityas
(congregational worship halls with stupas), sculptures, relief
carvings, inscriptions, paintings, water cisterns, and channels. It
evolved into a significant Buddhist settlement, university-like
center, and pilgrimage/monastic complex on the Konkan coast, linked
to trade ports.
Early History and Initial Excavation (1st Century
BCE/CE onward)
Excavation began around the 1st century CE (some
sources suggest late 1st century BCE), with the earliest caves being
simple, plain, and relatively unadorned—likely serving as temporary rain
shelters (vassa retreats) for monks before becoming permanent
monasteries. By the 3rd century CE, Kanheri had developed into an
important Buddhist settlement. The site flourished under the Satavahana
dynasty (and interactions with Western Satraps/Kshatrapas), with
inscriptions recording patronage and donations.
It functioned as a
university center during the Mauryan and Kushan periods' influence,
connected to trade routes and ports such as Sopara (Surparaka), Kalyan,
Nasik, Paithan, Ujjain, Chemula, and Vasai (Bassein). Merchants,
goldsmiths, traders, monks, nuns, and local officials from these areas
frequently donated cisterns, halls, cells, and caves—evidenced by
inscriptions naming donors from Kalyan, Nasik, Sopara, etc.
Chronological Development and Phases
Early Phase (1st–3rd/4th
centuries CE) — Hinayana-influenced: Simple viharas, stupas (aniconic
worship), rock-cut channels and cisterns for rainwater harvesting
(essential for year-round monastic life). Many Brahmi/Prakrit
inscriptions from the 2nd century CE record gifts of cisterns and
refectories. Peak activity under Satavahanas (e.g., Gautamiputra
Satakarni, Vashishtiputra Satakarni, Yajna Sri Satakarni).
Middle
Phase (5th–6th centuries CE) — Transition and Mahayana influences
appear: More sculptures, Buddha images, bodhisattvas (e.g.,
Avalokiteshwara/Padmapani prominent), litanies depicting dangers
(shipwreck, animals, etc.), and ornate pillars. Inscriptions in
Sanskrit/Brahmi, including Buddhist creed formulas. Traikutaka dynasty
copper-plate (493–494 CE, Kalachuri era 245) records a tooth-relic
stupa/chaitya by Pushyavarman.
Later Phase (9th–10th centuries CE) —
Mahayana dominance: Intricate reliefs, colossal Buddha figures (e.g.,
23-ft standing Buddhas in Cave 3 veranda, possibly later additions),
multi-faced Avalokiteshwara (eleven-faced in Cave 41), Padmasana Buddhas
with attendants/snake hoods. Unfinished caves show Elephanta-style
pillars. Activity continued but waned.
The site remained active
for over a millennium. Tibetan master Atisha (980–1054 CE) visited the
Krishnagiri Vihara in the late 10th/early 11th century to study
meditation under Rahulagupta.
Unique later Pahlavi (Middle Persian)
inscriptions in Cave 90 (and a stupa) date to 1009–1021 CE (Years
378/390 of Yazdagird era), recording Zoroastrian (Iranian)
visitors/co-religionists (e.g., Yazdan-panak, Mah-aiyyar). These are
rare in Indian Buddhist caves.
Decline, Later History, and
Rediscovery
Buddhism declined in the region after the 10th–11th
centuries amid rising Hindu/Brahmanical and later Islamic influences;
the site was gradually abandoned but not entirely forgotten locally.
Portuguese noted it in the 16th century; European travelers (Linschoten,
Fryer, etc.) described it. Systematic documentation came in the 19th
century: Dr. James Bird (1839, excavated front stupas finding urns with
ashes, jewels, inscriptions); E.W. West (1850s–60s, Pahlavi readings,
dagobas); James Burgess, etc. It is now protected by the Archaeological
Survey of India (ASI) within the national park.
The Kanheri Caves (Kānherī-guhā, meaning "black
mountain" caves) are a major group of over 100 (typically cited as 109)
ancient Buddhist rock-cut monuments excavated into a massive basalt
outcrop in Sanjay Gandhi National Park on Salsette Island, in the
western outskirts of Mumbai, India.
They date primarily from the 1st
century BCE (or CE in some sources) to the 10th century CE, serving as a
significant Buddhist monastic complex, learning center, and pilgrimage
site linked to trade routes on the Konkan coast. The caves were carved
into volcanic breccia/basalt rock using basic rock-cut techniques:
chiseling out interiors from the hillside, creating verandas, halls,
cells, courtyards, and stairs/handrails connecting levels across the
hill. Early caves are simpler and plainer (Hinayana influence); later
ones become more ornate with detailed carvings. Many include front
courts, wooden porches/roofs (evidenced by mortices for rafters), and
stone plinths/benches.
A standout feature is the sophisticated water
management system, essential for the monastic community in a monsoon
climate. Rock-cut channels and conduits above the caves direct rainwater
into numerous cisterns/tanks (most caves have one beside the front
court; some are interconnected for overflow). These provided year-round
pure water supply, with many donated by individuals or royalty
(inscriptions record such gifts). Large tanks and channels demonstrate
advanced planning and sustainability.
Architectural evolution
reflects broader Buddhist shifts and influences: early simplicity
(pre-Christian era engineering, functional monastic focus) draws from
Karla/Nasik chaityas (pillar styles, screens). Later Gupta/post-Gupta
phases add ornate pillars (fluted, bracketed), Mahayana icons, and
elements akin to Ajanta (porches/paintings), Ellora (pillar styles,
figures), and Elephanta (capitals). It became a major center by the 3rd
century CE, active into the 10th–11th century (Atisha studied here).
Unique aspects include the extensive cistern network, mixed natural/cut
caves, stupa cemetery/terraces, and trade-linked patronage.
Major Caves
Cave 3 (Great Chaitya): The largest and
most important worship hall, approximately 86.5 ft (26.4 m) long by 39
ft 10 in (12.1 m) wide. It features an apsidal end, a central unadorned
rock-cut stupa (16 ft/4.9 m diameter, original capital destroyed), 34
pillars (some with Karla-style bases/capitals, others plain octagonal),
a veranda with sculptured screen (five openings, modeled on Karla), and
later colossal standing Buddha figures (about 23 ft/7 m high) flanking
the entrance plus Avalokiteshvara reliefs. Inscriptions include one from
Yajna Sri Satakarni. A ruined wooden porch once existed.
Cave 2:
Adjacent open-fronted cave (possibly older), with three small stupas
(one broken), later Buddha sculptures, and a litany relief.
Cave 11
(Darbar Cave): Large assembly/dharmasala hall (73 ft by 32 ft / ~22 m x
9.7 m), with projecting shrine (Buddha on lion throne, flanked by
Padmapani and chauri-bearers), benches for ~100 people, plain pulpit
area, and Gupta-style pillars (square with mouldings, bracket capitals).
Evokes ancient assembly halls like Ajatashatru's at Rajagriha.
Cave
41: Late Mahayana vihara with porch (mixed Elephanta/Ajanta-style
pillars), hall shrine with Buddha image, side-wall Buddha figures,
cells, and a recess with seated Buddha, multi-headed Lokesvara
(Sahasrabahu), Padmapani, and litany; traces of paintings on
ceiling/walls.
Cave 90: Features elaborate Mahayana sculpture (Buddha
in padmasana on lotus throne supported by naga/snake-hooded figures,
with attendants) and rare Pahlavi (Persian) inscriptions on
pilasters/over a cistern.
Other notables: Cave 1 (incomplete vihara
with large pillars); Cave 4 (small circular cell with solid stupa, later
Buddha/walking Buddha); Cave 78 (late vihara with fluted pillars, shrine
stupa); Cave 81 (porch with bench and Satakarni inscription); Caves
84–87 (brick stupas housing relics); Caves 5–6 (cisterns).
These dominate the artistic output at Kanheri and are
executed in high and low relief directly into the basalt rock. Common
themes include representations of the historical Buddha (Shakyamuni),
Bodhisattvas (especially compassionate figures), narrative scenes
illustrating Buddhist teachings, Jataka tales (Buddha's previous lives),
and protective litanies.
Buddha Sculptures: Prominent colossal
standing and seated Buddha figures (some up to ~23 feet/7 meters high)
appear in relief on walls, verandas, and shrines. Poses include seated
in padmasana (lotus position) on lotus thrones or simhasana (lion
thrones), teaching (dharmachakra mudra), walking, or in bhumisparsha
mudra (earth-touching, symbolizing enlightenment). Later additions often
include attendants like chauri (fly-whisk) bearers or female figures.
Examples include colossal reliefs at the ends of the veranda in Cave 3
and seated Buddhas in Caves 41, 90, and various viharas.
Bodhisattvas: Avalokitesvara (as Padmapani/Lokesvara, often holding a
lotus) is the most distinctive and frequently depicted figure, sometimes
shown as an 11-faced or 10-headed/sahasrabahu (thousand-armed) form
symbolizing compassion and salvation. Reliefs frequently depict him
surrounded by compartments or scenes of dangers (litanies) from which he
rescues devotees—e.g., attacks by elephant, lion, snake, fire,
shipwreck, imprisonment, Garuda, disease, sword, or enemies. A notable
example is in Cave 41 (porch pillars of Ajanta/Elephanta style,
back-wall sculptures including a ten-headed Padmapani and litany). Cave
90 features a Mahayana-style seated Buddha on a lotus throne supported
by naga (snake-hooded) figures, surrounded by attendants.
Stupas
(Dagobas): Rock-cut solid stupas are central to chaityas and some
viharas. The Great Chaitya (Cave 3) has a prominent ~16-foot-diameter
central stupa (originally with a capital, now damaged). Cave 2 has three
smaller stupas (one broken), Cave 4 a small ancient one, and others
feature later-added Buddha reliefs or litanies on them. Early stupas are
unadorned (Hinayana style); later ones incorporate Mahayana elements.
Pillars, Capitals, and Architectural Elements: Chaityas and verandas
have intricately carved pillars (square, octagonal, fluted, or with
Karla-pattern bases). Capitals feature discs, animal motifs (lions,
often four on a single pillar as in Cave 3), squat supporting figures
(possibly upholding a dharmachakra/wheel of dharma), or cushion shapes
in later caves. Veranda pillars and front screens (e.g., Cave 3's carved
screen with five openings, mimicking Karla Caves and showing Amaravati
influences) include weatherworn designs, lion groups, and squat figures.
Side walls, recesses, and shrines often have seated Buddhas on thrones
or additional relief panels.
Paintings
Paintings are far less
prominent and well-preserved than sculptures/reliefs at Kanheri, unlike
the vibrant murals of Ajanta Caves. Most references describe them as
faded traces, fragments, or unfinished works on walls and ceilings
depicting scenes from Buddha's life, teachings, enlightenment, and
possibly Jataka stories. Many have deteriorated due to time, humidity,
and exposure. Traces remain in some caves (e.g., mentions of remnants in
Cave 41 back wall and copies made of paintings from Caves 16 and 21
showing groups of figures). Sources sometimes note colorful, expressive
styles illustrating Buddhist narratives, but surviving examples are
rare.
The most specific and documented paintings are the unfinished
fragments in Cave 34 (antechamber roof): The ceiling is divided into
five compartments. Each shows a Buddha seated on an ornate throne with a
high back-rail surmounted by makaras (mythical crocodile-like
creatures), with figures wearing high caps saluting or paying homage
above. The central (best-preserved) compartment features a fair-skinned
Buddha in brick/reddish-kashaya robe, seated in bhumisparsha mudra
(right hand touching the earth, left in lap—symbolizing the moment of
enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, calling the Earth to witness against
Mara). A dark-skinned Buddha figure appears nearby to the right. These
are described as polychrome fragments providing insight into ancient
painting techniques.
Some sources mention around 30 incomplete Buddha
paintings overall (primarily referring to fragments or planned works
like those in Cave 34), but detailed evidence is sparse.
How to Reach
By train: Take the Western Line local
train to Borivali station. From there, it's a 10-15 minute
auto-rickshaw, taxi, or BEST bus ride (cheap and frequent) to the SGNP
main gate (about 5-10 km).
By road/taxi/Uber/Ola: From central Mumbai
(e.g., Churchgate, Bandra, or airport), it takes 45-90+ minutes
depending on traffic (15-30+ km). Direct drop at park gate.
Private
vehicle: Drive to SGNP gate; parking available there. Private cars/bikes
are generally not allowed all the way to the caves—use internal
transport.
Entry Fees (Approximate/Latest Varies – Confirm
On-Site or Official)
You typically pay separate fees for SGNP entry +
Kanheri Caves (ASI-managed).
Indians: SGNP ≈ ₹85/adult
(children/seniors lower, e.g., ₹45); Caves ≈ ₹25-85 (recent reports:
₹20-25 online/QR or ₹25-40 offline).
Foreigners: SGNP ≈ ₹200-600;
Caves ≈ ₹200-600 (higher rates common).
Total example: Indians
~₹110-170; Foreigners ~₹400-1200+.
Additional: Vehicle/bus inside
park (small fee), possible camera fees, cycle rental. Children under
5-12 often free or discounted. Fees subject to change (e.g., recent
2025-2026 updates reported). Online/QR options available at gate or
caves for caves ticket.
Opening Hours
Kanheri Caves: Typically
9:30 AM to 5:30 PM (or 7:30 AM-5:00 PM in some reports), closed Mondays.
Last entry ~4-4:30 PM to allow exit before dark/park closing.
SGNP:
Often 7:30/9:00 AM to 5:30/6:00 PM, closed Mondays or with separate
timings.
Arrive early (by 9-10 AM) for cooler temperatures, fewer
crowds, and full exploration time. Plan to leave the caves by 4-5 PM to
catch return transport and exit the park.
Getting to the Caves
Inside the Park & What to Expect
The caves are ~5-7 km (3-4 miles)
inside the park from the main gate, uphill on a forested road/path.
Options:
Shuttle/bus: Frequent (every ~30 min), inexpensive,
recommended—drops near caves base.
Bicycle rental: Available near
gate (~₹60 for 2 hours); fun but last section is steep—check bike
condition, park securely.
Walk/trek: 1-1.5 hours one way; scenic but
tiring in heat/humidity—not ideal for all.
From the drop-off/base:
Steep rock-cut stairs and rocky/uneven paths climb the hillside to reach
scattered caves (some require further short climbs). The complex spans a
slope with views over the park/forest.
Expect monkeys (common—do not
feed, secure bags/food/phones/sunglasses), birds, possible deer/other
wildlife (tigers/lions are in fenced safari areas, not on this route).
Paths can be slippery in rain; some caves are small/dark (bring
torch/phone light if exploring interiors). Photography generally allowed
(check for extra fees).
Duration: 2-3 hours for main caves
exploration + travel inside park; total half-day trip from Mumbai (4-6
hours including travel/park time). Full day if combining with park
safari/lake.
Best Time to Visit: October to February/March (cooler,
dry, pleasant 20-30°C/68-86°F; ideal for walking). Avoid peak summer
(hot/humid) and heavy monsoon (June-Sept: slippery paths, leeches, rain,
but lush greenery/waterfalls). Weekdays less crowded.
Facilities
Limited inside: Basic ticket counters, small/poor-quality
cafeteria/snacks near gate or caves (water available—better to bring
your own), toilets (use at gate), limited shade. No high-end restaurants
or ATMs inside—bring cash, water (1-2 liters/person), snacks, and
personal items. Picnic possible in designated areas.
Tips for
Visitors
Wear comfortable, grippy closed shoes (stairs, rocks,
dust/dirt); light breathable clothes, hat/cap, sunscreen, insect
repellent.
Carry plenty of water, light snacks, small backpack;
plastic bags for waste (follow "leave no trace").
Respect site: No
touching carvings, no littering, follow ASI rules (no food/drink inside
some caves?).
Monkeys: Keep food hidden; they can be bold/aggressive.
Mobility: Many stairs/uneven terrain—not fully wheelchair/pram-friendly;
some lower caves more accessible.
Group/private guided tours
available (helpful for history/context).
Check weather/road status;
carry ID/cash; download offline maps if needed.
Combine with park
attractions (safari separate ticket/booking) but prioritize caves early.
Current info: Verify hours/fees on official SGNP site
(sgnp.maharashtra.gov.in), ASI, or recent visitor reports, as they can
change.