Location: Magelang, Central Java Map
Inhabited: 9th- 14th century
Borobudur is ancient religious complex situated in Magelang, Central Java island of Indonesia. Borobudur was constructed in 9th- 14th century.
Borobudur was erected as a huge stupa, made in the
form of a mandala. The foundation of the stupa is square, with a
side of 118 m. The stupa has eight tiers: the five lower ones are
square and the three upper ones are round. The form of the mandala
is a diagram of the universe in accordance with Buddhist ideas (see
Abhidharma). On the upper tier there are 72 small stupas around a
large central one. Each stupa is in the shape of a bell. Inside the
stupas are 504 Buddha statues and 1460 religious bas-reliefs.
Borobudur is still a place of pilgrimage and prayer. Pilgrims walk
seven times clockwise at each level. Touching each Buddha from the
stupas in the upper tier, according to beliefs, brings happiness.
Design
The entire volume of the entire structure is approximately 55,000
m³. The stupa was built of 2,000,000 stone blocks. Until now,
scientists have not been able to determine the exact date and
duration of the construction of this temple - they suggest that the
temple was erected in the 7th-9th centuries.
Site selection
In 1940, the Dutch artist Nivenkamp hypothesized that Borobudur was
built in the form of a Buddha on a lotus flower, and for this reason
the complex was likely to be located on the lake. In 1949,
geologists found deposits that were interpreted as the bottom of the
lake. It was hypothesized that the lake was formed as a result of
the eruption of the volcano Merapi in 1006 or much earlier. It is
not clear whether the lake was drained to build a stupa or whether
it was a natural disaster.
Further studies showed that the lake existed in the XII-XIV
centuries, confirming that the temple symbolized the lotus.
Interpretation
According to researchers, the building can be considered as a huge
book for pilgrims. As the ritual tour of each tier is completed, the
pilgrims get acquainted with the life of the Buddha and with the
elements of his teachings.
Three levels symbolize the three spheres of residence - Kamadhatu
(sphere of passions), Rupadhatu (sphere of forms) and Arupadhatu
(sphere without forms).
Kamadhatu
The Kamadhatu level was closed later, probably for the stability of
the structure. According to an early manuscript authored by the
Buddhist saint Karmavibhangga, 160 relief panels were installed on
the first level. They described the world of passions or the world
of the sensual, and the development of the manifestation of
sensuality in accordance with the laws of karma. The first 117
panels show different actions leading to the same result, and the
remaining 43 panels show how the same effect leads to 43 different
results. Several panels remained in the southeast corner of the
complex.
Rupadhatu
The reliefs at the Rupadhatu level illustrate the classic works of
Lalitavistar, Jatak-Avadan and Gandavyuh.
120 panels based on Lalitavistara tell stories from the life of
Buddha Gautama.
Some panels tell stories from classic jatak about previous Buddha
lives in folk form. In this case, the Buddha is portrayed by a god,
a king, an ordinary person or even an animal - a lion, a deer, a
monkey, a swan, a turtle. In every rebirth, the Buddha shows
nobility and compassion. These stories, in popular form, reveal
Buddhist principles.
Some panels speak of Sudhana wandering in search of wisdom.
Arupadhatu
The highest level corresponding to Arupadhat (a sphere without
forms) is represented by three round terraces at the top. There are
no reliefs or boards; during the construction period, life-size
Buddha statues were placed here, usually inside stupas or niches in
the wall. Many of them were not preserved or damaged.
Discovery and History Nowadays
For hundreds of years, Borobudur lay covered with volcanic ash and
overgrown with jungle. How this unique monument was forgotten and
abandoned is not yet clear. In the middle of the 20th century, it
was suggested that after the eruption of the volcano Merapi,
misfortunes forced residents to leave their land and look for other
habitats. The eruption occurred in 1006, but many scientists believe
that the center of the Javanese civilization moved to the Brantas
Valley as early as 928. One way or another, why people left
Borobudur remains a mystery.
In the 18th century, the upper terraces were only partially visible.
Dutch colonial expeditions found other monuments, but did not
mention Borobudur. Only in 1814, Lieutenant Governor Stamford
Ruffles discovered the monument during the British occupation of the
island during the Anglo-Dutch war. When he arrived in Semarang, he
received a message that he discovered a hill with a lot of carved
stones. The Dutchman Cornelius organized an expedition, he gathered
a detachment of 200 people and cleaned the monument for a month and
a half. His work was continued by others between 1817 and 1822.
Since 1835, the upper part of the monument has been cleared and the
whole complex has become well visible. In 1849-1853, the artist
Vilsen carried out work on sketching reliefs. His works were in the
Museum of Antiquity in Leiden. In 1873, the complex was
photographed. Then the structure of the complex was completely
unclear, and in 1882 the inspector for culture offered to completely
dismantle the monument and place it in the museum.
Meanwhile, the monument was stolen, reliefs, sculptures, and
ornaments were taken away by merchants of souvenirs. The King of
Siam, who visited the governor in 1886, took with him eight bull
teams with statues and ornamental elements and took away the
sculpture of the only surviving guardian of the temple.
Restoration
In 1907-1911, Theodore van Erp undertook the first major restoration
of the complex. Since 1900, the young officer was a member of the
Borobudur Commission in Magelang. The restoration was a great
success, and the complex acquired a solemn and impressive
appearance.
Due to the limited budget, work was first done to improve drainage
and restore the overall structure. Long-term restoration required a
lot of extra work. In addition, Borobudur is built on a hill, and
work is needed to protect the monument from erosion of the soil,
failure, corrosion and damage from the vegetation of the jungle.
The only solution would be to completely dismantle the structure,
strengthen the hill and complete restoration. This huge work was
carried out in 1973-1984 under the auspices of UNESCO. The famous
Indonesian archaeologist Bukhari, M., took part in the development
of the restoration project. Now Borobudur complex is one of the
World Heritage sites.
Recent events
September 21, 1985 the temple was slightly damaged by bombings of
Muslim extremists.
The development of mass tourism caused controversy and scandals.
Park authorities have been criticized.
On May 27, 2006, an earthquake occurred in the south of Central
Java, which caused severe damage in the vicinity of the city of
Yogyakarta. However, the Borobudur complex, located at some distance
from the epicenter, was not damaged.