Location: 30 km (18.6 mi) South of Nevşehir, Nevşehir Province Map
Open: May- Oct: 9am- 7pm daily
Nov- Apr: 9am- 5pm daily
Derinkuyu Underground City (Turkish: Derinkuyu Yeraltı Şehri), also
known historically as Elengubu or (in Cappadocian Greek)
Malakopi/Malakopia, is the largest excavated underground city in
Turkey and one of the most remarkable archaeological sites in the
Cappadocia region of Nevşehir Province, central Anatolia.
Carved
entirely by hand into the soft volcanic tuff (compressed volcanic
ash) that defines Cappadocia’s unique geology, it descends
approximately 85 meters (280 feet) and once sheltered up to 20,000
people along with their livestock, food stores, and essential
facilities. The city was not a permanent underground metropolis but
a sophisticated, multi-purpose refuge and storage network used
intermittently over more than two millennia.
Geological and Prehistoric Context
Cappadocia’s landscape was
shaped by ancient volcanic eruptions from nearby mountains (including
Hasan Dağı and Erciyes Dağı) millions of years ago, depositing layers of
soft, easily carved tuff rock that hardens when exposed to air. This
geology made large-scale excavation feasible with basic bronze or iron
tools while providing natural insulation, stability, and defensibility.
The broader region contains dozens (possibly over 200) smaller
underground settlements, many interconnected by tunnels, forming a vast
subterranean network that exploited the same rock formations.
Origins and Early Construction (8th–7th Centuries BCE and Earlier
Theories)
The exact origins remain debated among archaeologists, but
most sources attribute the initial caves to the Phrygians, an
Indo-European people who settled in central Anatolia around the 8th–7th
centuries BCE. They began carving basic caves and chambers into the
tuff, likely for storage or early shelter.
Some theories push the
beginnings earlier to the Hittites (c. 1600–1200 BCE), an ancient
Anatolian civilization. Hittite artifacts have been found inside
Derinkuyu, suggesting they may have excavated the first few levels while
retreating from Phrygian invaders around 1200 BCE.
The oldest
possible written reference comes from Xenophon’s Anabasis (c. 370 BCE),
which describes Anatolian peoples living in excavated underground homes
in the region—though it does not name Derinkuyu specifically.
Originally, these spaces likely served for storing goods and providing
temporary protection from raiders in a strategically contested frontier
zone.
Expansion in Roman and Byzantine Eras (1st–11th Centuries
CE)
During the Roman period, as the Greek language supplanted
Phrygian, local (likely Greek-speaking Christian) inhabitants
dramatically expanded the complex into a multi-level labyrinth. They
added chapels, Greek inscriptions, living quarters, kitchens,
refectories, wine and oil presses, stables, cellars, and storage rooms.
By the Byzantine era (especially from the 5th–10th centuries CE, with
artifacts confirming Middle Byzantine use), Derinkuyu reached its fully
developed form—up to 18–20 levels (though only about 8 are typically
accessible today). It became a self-sustaining refuge during the
Arab-Byzantine wars (roughly 780–1180 CE), when Muslim Arab raids
threatened the Christian Byzantine frontier.
Key defensive and
engineering features included:
Massive rolling stone doors (up to
half a ton each) that could seal individual levels or the entire city
from inside, with central holes allowing defenders to spear attackers.
Over 50 ventilation shafts for fresh air.
A prominent 55-meter
(180-foot) ventilation/well shaft that doubled as a water source
(sealable from below if needed).
Narrow, low hallways designed to
slow invaders and force single-file movement.
Livestock stables near
the surface (to manage smell, gases, and cold).
A barrel-vaulted room
on the second level, possibly used as a religious school or missionary
training center, with adjacent study rooms.
The city could support
its population for extended periods (weeks or months) with stored food,
wine production, and waste management in sealed jars.
Connections
and Regional Network
Derinkuyu was linked by an 8–9 km (5–5.6 mi)
tunnel to the nearby underground city of Kaymaklı, part of a larger
Cappadocian network of subterranean settlements that allowed movement
between sites during crises.
Medieval, Ottoman, and 20th-Century
Use
The underground cities continued serving Christian populations
(Cappadocian Greeks and Armenians) through later threats, including the
14th-century Mongol incursions under Timur (Tamerlane).
Under Ottoman
rule, they functioned as refuges (kataphygia in Cappadocian Greek) from
periodic persecutions. As late as 1909, locals hid in them during the
Adana massacres.
Abandonment in 1923
The city’s long history
as a living refuge ended abruptly in 1923 with the Greco-Turkish
population exchange following the Greco-Turkish War. The Christian
Cappadocian Greek inhabitants were expelled to Greece, and the tunnels
were abandoned.
Rediscovery and Modern Era (1963–Present)
For
decades, the full scale was forgotten or known only through local
legends, despite visible ventilation shafts and surface entrances. In
1963, an anonymous resident renovating his basement knocked through a
wall, noticed a draft, and discovered a hidden chamber leading to the
vast network (some accounts mention disappearing chickens as the
trigger).
Excavations revealed over 600 surface entrances hidden in
homes. The site opened to tourists in 1969; today, roughly half the city
is accessible. It was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in
1985 as part of the Göreme National Park and Cappadocia rock sites.
Historical Significance
Derinkuyu exemplifies human ingenuity in
the face of existential threats—whether from invading armies, religious
persecution, or political upheaval. Its engineering (ventilation, water
management, defensibility) and adaptability across empires (Phrygian,
Persian, Roman, Byzantine, Ottoman) highlight Cappadocia’s role as a
cultural crossroads. While much of the deeper levels remain unexplored,
it stands as a testament to the region’s layered history and the
resilience of its ancient inhabitants.
Derinkuyu Underground City (also known as Elengubu) is one of the
most remarkable examples of ancient rock-cut architecture in the world.
Located in Cappadocia, Nevşehir Province, central Turkey, it is a vast
multi-level subterranean settlement carved directly into the soft
volcanic tuff (ignimbrite) rock formed by ancient eruptions. This rock
is relatively easy to excavate with simple tools like picks and shovels
yet hardens upon exposure to air, allowing stable, self-supporting
tunnels and chambers without extensive internal bracing.
The city
extends to a depth of approximately 85 meters (280 feet) and features a
labyrinthine network of corridors, rooms, shafts, and functional spaces
capable of sheltering up to 20,000 people (with livestock and food
stores) for extended periods. While popular accounts mention up to 18
levels and only about 10% of the complex is open to visitors today
(roughly 8 main floors accessible), the excavated portions reveal
sophisticated, purposeful engineering designed for long-term habitation,
defense, and self-sufficiency.
Construction Techniques and
Materials
Builders carved the entire city by hand from the solid tuff
bedrock—no imported materials, columns, or load-bearing structures were
needed. Tunnels and rooms were excavated as voids within the monolithic
rock mass, relying on the material's natural compressive strength. Over
centuries (starting possibly in the 8th–7th centuries BCE by the
Phrygians, expanded during Roman/Byzantine eras), the city grew
organically: new levels were added downward, with connecting staircases
(some steep or vertical with carved footholds) and sloping corridors.
Ceilings vary in height—wider upper corridors feel more open, while
deeper passages are deliberately narrow and low. Some spaces feature
refined architectural details, such as barrel-vaulted ceilings (rare
underground) or cross-planned (cruciform) churches, showing advanced
planning beyond mere survival.
Overall Layout and Floor-by-Floor
Architecture
The city is vertically zoned for functionality, defense,
and environmental control. Levels connect via a maze of narrow tunnels
(often single-file and requiring stooping to hinder armed intruders).
Each major section could be sealed independently. A composite layout
from official and archaeological sources shows roughly this progression
(exact numbering varies slightly by source, as the city is a continuous
network rather than rigid "floors"):
1st Floor (~10 m / 33 ft depth):
Stables for livestock (placed near the surface to vent animal odors and
gases upward and provide natural insulation). Includes storage rooms,
living quarters, a winery, and possibly an early church or monks’ school
area. Corridors here are relatively wide with higher ceilings.
2nd
Floor (~20 m / 66 ft): Living quarters, kitchens (with tandoor-style
ovens; walls often smoke-blackened from centuries of use),
wine-house/presses, and the unique barrel-vaulted ceiling room—a
spacious hall believed to serve as a Byzantine-era missionary school,
flanked by study/classrooms. This is one of the most architecturally
refined spaces, demonstrating deliberate design.
3rd–4th Floors
(~30–40 m / 100–130 ft): Interconnected tunnels and extensive food
warehouses/storage rooms (granaries, cellars). Wine and oil presses
appear here. The first major ventilation shafts become prominent. Some
sources note arsenal or meeting halls.
5th–6th Floors (~50–65 m /
165–215 ft): Daily living quarters, more storage, and millstones
(grinding stones) embedded in passages for food processing. Passages
narrow further; vertical staircases increase.
7th Floor (~70+ m /
230+ ft): A large cross-planned (cruciform) church, baptismal areas,
confessional alcoves, a deep water well, and burial chamber. This serves
as a spiritual and communal focal point.
8th Floor and Deeper (up to
~85 m / 280 ft): Deepest accessible levels with ventilation shaft
termini, additional water sources, escape tunnels, and humid, cool
storage. Narrower and more restricted.
A tunnel connects
Derinkuyu to the nearby Kaymaklı underground city (about 8–9 km / 5–6
miles away), part of a larger regional network.
Key Engineering
and Defensive Features
Ventilation System: Over 50–52 vertical shafts
(chimneys) pierce through all levels, some reaching 55–85 m deep. These
ensured constant fresh air circulation even when fully sealed,
maintaining a stable year-round temperature of 13–15°C (55–59°F).
Several shafts doubled as wells, drawing from aquifers. The design
prevented poisoning or suffocation during sieges.
Water Supply: Deep
wells tapped underground aquifers. The main 55 m ventilation shaft also
functioned as a well, supplying both the city and surface villagers.
Strategic placement avoided surface contamination during attacks.
Defense Mechanisms:
Rolling stone doors: Massive circular boulders
(up to half a ton or more) fitted into grooves. They could be rolled
from inside only to seal entrances or entire floors/sections. A central
hole allowed defenders to spear or shoot attackers while remaining
protected.
Narrow, low passages: Intentionally restrictive
(single-file, bent-over posture) to disadvantage invaders carrying
weapons or armor.
Labyrinthine plan: Multiple routes, dead-ends, and
sealed levels created confusion for outsiders.
Other Features:
Cisterns for water storage, tandoor ovens, metal-processing areas,
refectories, and soot-stained walls from oil lamps/torches. The city was
fully self-sustaining with food storage, animal husbandry, religious
spaces, and even education.
Regional Geological Context: The Cappadocian Volcanic Province
The
CVP formed from ~14–15 Ma (Middle Miocene) to Quaternary times through
calc-alkaline volcanism linked to regional tectonics (including
transtension, faulting, and plate interactions in the Anatolian
plateau). Major volcanic centers include stratovolcanoes like Mount
Erciyes (Argaeus), Mount Hasan (Hasan Dağ), and Melendiz Dağ, plus
hidden or buried caldera complexes (e.g., possible sources in the
Çiftlik basin or Derinkuyu-related structures).
Repeated large
explosive eruptions produced voluminous ignimbrites (welded to
non-welded pyroclastic flow deposits) interbedded with fluvio-lacustrine
sediments in the Ürgüp Formation. At least nine major ignimbrite units
have been identified, with thicknesses exceeding 430 m in places. These
include (in approximate stratigraphic order): Kavak, Zelve, Cemilköy,
Gördeles, and Kızılkaya (among others). The sequence reflects evolving
volcanic activity, with ignimbrites sourced from calderas now largely
buried or eroded.
Erosion, uplift, and differential weathering later
sculpted the famous “fairy chimneys” (hoodoos) elsewhere in
Cappadocia—cones of soft tuff capped by resistant basalt or welded
ignimbrite layers. However, Derinkuyu sits on a relatively flat plateau
where deep, horizontal excavation was possible without rapid surface
erosion exposing the structures.
Specific Geology at Derinkuyu:
The Kızılkaya Ignimbrite
Derinkuyu Underground City was excavated
specifically within the Kızılkaya ignimbrite (Pliocene, ~4.3–5.5 Ma),
one of the younger, widespread units in the Ürgüp Formation. (Nearby
Kaymaklı, by contrast, is in the older Gördeles ignimbrite.)
Rock
type and origin: This is a rhyolitic to dacitic ignimbrite formed from
high-volume pyroclastic flows. It consists of a poorly sorted mixture of
volcanic ash matrix, pumice fragments, lithic clasts (e.g., older
volcanic rocks), and phenocrysts (plagioclase, quartz, biotite, etc.).
It shows both welded (dense, eutaxitic texture with flattened pumice)
and non-welded facies, with graded bedding and stratification in places.
Field exposures (e.g., quarries near Çekme village) show thicknesses of
~13.5 m, though the underground city spans an estimated ~40 m of the
unit (deeper sections may include transitional or related layers).
Key marker horizons: Fluvial clastics (river/lake deposits) separate the
Kızılkaya from the underlying Gördeles ignimbrite, aiding stratigraphic
identification. The area lies on an uplifted block associated with the
Derinkuyu Fault, which helps expose these units.
The ignimbrite
was emplaced hot and then cooled, developing cooling (thermal)
joints—vertical to sub-vertical fractures forming polygonal patterns in
plan view (spacing from meters to tens of meters). These joints, along
with any tectonic fractures, were critical to both carving feasibility
and long-term stability.
Rock Properties: Why the Tuff/Ignimbrite
Was Ideal for Underground Construction
The Kızılkaya ignimbrite
(often called “tuff” in popular descriptions) has physical and
mechanical properties that made large-scale excavation practical with
simple Bronze/Iron Age tools (picks, chisels):
Porosity and
density: High porosity (typically 20–30% or higher in Cappadocian
tuffs/ignimbrites) makes it lightweight and easy to carve when fresh or
dry.
Strength: Moderate uniaxial compressive strength (UCS often
~10–30 MPa, averaging ~19 MPa in regional studies), sufficient for
self-supporting chambers, arches, and multi-level structures once
exposed to air (the rock hardens slightly on oxidation/desiccation). It
is soft enough to excavate but coherent enough to resist collapse.
Other characteristics: Good thermal insulation, fire resistance, and
workability. The material is sensitive to water content (strength
decreases when wet), but the region’s arid climate and engineered
ventilation/drainage helped mitigate this. Freeze-thaw cycling is a
long-term concern but was managed historically.
Ancient builders
exploited these traits: rooms, tunnels, ventilation shafts, wells, and
storage areas were carved with minimal collapse risk. The city’s design
(e.g., arched ceilings, pillars) takes advantage of the rock’s natural
load-bearing capacity.
Joint Systems, Fractures, and Structural
Geology
Joints profoundly influenced construction and stability:
Cooling joints dominate: Multi-directional/polygonal, generally
vertical, with no single strong preferred orientation regionally.
Densities vary (higher in Kızılkaya than Gördeles; field measurements
show ~0.62 joints/m in Kızılkaya vs. lower underground).
Underground
observations: In Derinkuyu, joint density tends to increase with depth
(ascending trend from upper to lower floors). Builders appear to have
oriented rooms and walls to avoid placing walls perpendicular to major
joints, reducing instability risks. Joints are disorganized overall,
allowing flexible, arbitrary layouts rather than rigid grid patterns.
Tectonic context: The Derinkuyu Fault and regional faulting
(transtensional regime) created minor fractures, but no major active
faults disrupt the city today. Central Anatolia experiences moderate
intraplate seismicity, yet the rock mass has proven remarkably stable
over millennia.
Geomechanical studies (e.g., long-term stability
analyses, acoustic emission monitoring) confirm that the jointed but
competent rock mass supports the complex, with factors like residual
strength and time-dependent degradation considered. Modern assessments
note the tuff’s suitability for geoengineering applications.
How
Geology Enabled (and Limits) the Underground City
The combination of
thick, flat-lying, soft-yet-stable ignimbrite layers on a plateau
allowed vertical and lateral expansion without modern machinery.
Ventilation shafts (up to the surface) and wells tapped groundwater
while maintaining airflow. The porous rock also provided natural
insulation and concealment.
Limitations include:
Water
sensitivity.
Joint-controlled potential weak zones.
Depth-related
density changes.
Despite this, the city remained functional for
centuries (initial Phrygian phases ~8th–7th century BCE, major expansion
in Byzantine times).
Surface Geomorphology Around Derinkuyu
While the underground city is hidden, the surface shows typical
Cappadocian features: dissected plateaus, valleys with fairy chimneys
(where resistant caps protect underlying tuff), and occasional outcrops
of the same ignimbrites. Erosion is ongoing via wind, water, and rill
processes, but the plateau setting preserved the deep, unexposed layers
ideal for the city.
Why Visit Derinkuyu?
It showcases incredible self-sufficiency:
living quarters, stables, kitchens, churches, schools (including a
missionary school), wine/oil presses, storage, wells, and ventilation
shafts up to 55m deep that maintain a constant 13–15°C (55–59°F)
temperature year-round. Massive circular rolling stone doors (200–500 kg
/ 440–1,100 lbs) could seal sections from inside, and narrow single-file
passages aided defense. A 9 km tunnel reportedly connects it to Kaymaklı
(not open for traversal).
Derinkuyu vs. Kaymaklı (the other popular
site): Derinkuyu is deeper and larger with a more dramatic vertical
descent, wider passages in places, and often fewer crowds on the Green
Tour route. Kaymaklı feels more intimate/horizontal with tighter tunnels
but is sometimes more crowded. Many visitors do both in one day (they're
~9–10 km / 15 min apart by car). Derinkuyu suits those seeking scale and
depth; choose based on tolerance for stairs/narrow spaces.
Practical Visiting Tips
Opening Hours and Tickets (as of recent data,
confirm on-site as prices fluctuate with TRY):
Summer
(April–October): ~8:00 AM–7:00 PM.
Winter (November–March): ~8:00
AM–5:00 PM.
Ticket: Around 300 TL / €8–13 (varies; kids under 8 often
free). Included in the Türkiye Museum Pass. Buy on-site; no need to
pre-book unless on a tour.
Best Time to Visit:
Early morning
(right at opening) or midday/lunchtime to avoid tour group peaks.
Organized Green Tours often hit it morning or afternoon, so aim for
gaps.
Shoulder seasons (spring/fall) are ideal for milder surface
weather and fewer people. November visits have been reported as quiet.
Summers are hot above ground (cool relief underground); winters are cold
but stable inside.
How Long to Spend: 45–90 minutes. Follow the
marked red arrows for the full route (down) and blue for quick exit
(up). Explore side nooks (bring phone flashlight for dimmer areas). It's
a one-way-ish loop with stairs; not easy to rush.
Getting There
(from Göreme, main Cappadocia hub):
~30–40 km south, 40 min by car.
Rental car — Most flexible (easy roads, parking nearby).
Public
bus/dolmuş: Göreme → Nevşehir (frequent, cash), then Nevşehir →
Derinkuyu minibus (25 min). Ask drivers; very helpful. Return is
similar.
Tours: Green (South) Tour commonly includes Derinkuyu +
Ihlara Valley, Selime Monastery, etc. (hotel pickup, guide). Private or
small-group options available. Taxi/private transfer also easy.
What to Wear and Bring:
Comfortable, sturdy closed-toe shoes with
good grip — floors can be uneven/slippery; lots of steep stairs and
ducking.
Layers/light jacket — Cool and constant underground temp
(feels chilly after hot surface).
Water and light snack (no
facilities deep inside).
Phone flashlight or small torch for
off-route areas.
Avoid backpacks if possible (or wear on front) —
they scrape low ceilings. No major restrictions, but modest clothing
respects the cultural area.
Physical and Accessibility
Considerations:
Narrow passages (as low as 70–80 cm / ~2.5 ft wide)
and low ceilings require bending, stooping, and single-file movement.
Taller visitors (e.g., over 6 ft) or those with larger builds may
struggle in spots.
Steep stairs and vertical emphasis — not ideal for
bad knees, mobility issues, or severe claustrophobia. Upper levels are
wider; you can turn back anytime. Good ventilation and lighting help,
but crowds amplify tight feelings. Mild claustrophobia is often
manageable early/quiet times.
Not wheelchair/stroller-friendly.
On-Site Experience:
Minimal signage/information panels —
self-guided is fine with prior reading, but a guide (hired at entrance
or via tour) greatly enhances understanding of rooms' purposes.
Marked route prevents getting lost; blue arrows for exit.
Souvenirs,
snacks, and toilets near entrance. Combine with nearby sites for a full
day.
Safety and Etiquette:
Stable structure with ventilation;
no major risks reported. Stay on paths.
Respect the site — no
touching fragile areas, no littering.
Photography is allowed (no
flash in sensitive spots).