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The cost of living and life in the Roman Empire

The Romans were people, and therefore they also had to think about earning and living wages. Here we give some quotations on life and how ordinary citizens of the Roman Empire spent their lives. While Pompeii functioned as a bustling, more industrial and commercial hub with numerous workshops and trading activities, Herculaneum was generally more affluent, residential, and refined—often attracting wealthier residents seeking a quieter seaside lifestyle. Despite these differences, residents of both cities relied on diverse economic activities to earn a living, from large-scale agriculture to small-scale crafts and services.

Elite Estates and Agriculture

The countryside surrounding Pompeii and Herculaneum featured luxurious villas belonging to wealthy Roman elites. Many served as holiday retreats (otium estates) for relaxation, while others were highly productive working farms. The volcanic soil on the fertile slopes of Mount Vesuvius proved exceptionally rich, supporting intensive cultivation of grapes (for wine), olives (for oil), grains, vegetables, and fruits. Crops were often planted between rows of vines and olive trees in a classic polyculture system. Livestock breeding, including sheep for wool, pigs, and cattle, also thrived. Profits from these agricultural enterprises accumulated in the hands of a few powerful local families, who leveraged their land-based wealth to gain significant economic influence and political power in local affairs.

Staple Foods and Everyday Provisions

Basic foodstuffs were primarily supplied by small-scale traders, independent artisans, and occasionally by the same wealthy landowners who controlled larger estates.
Bread was a daily staple and produced fresh in numerous local bakeries. A prime example is the well-preserved pistrinum (bakery) on Cardo V in Herculaneum, where the full production cycle—from milling grain with lava-stone mills to kneading dough and baking dense, yeast-free loaves—took place on site. Fresh bread was typically sold directly from adjacent shops or street vendors.
As coastal port cities, both Pompeii and Herculaneum benefited greatly from the sea. Fishing provided a vital income source for many residents, supplying fresh seafood to markets. Excess fish was often transformed into garum, the famous Roman fermented fish sauce that served as a ubiquitous seasoning (similar to modern soy sauce or Worcestershire sauce). Garum production involved layering fish (such as tuna, mackerel for premium varieties, or cheaper anchovies) with salt in large amphorae, allowing it to ferment for weeks or months. The resulting pungent liquid was strained off, while the solid remains were discarded or used as fertilizer. Pompeii, in particular, became renowned for high-quality garum, with prominent producers like Aulus Umbricius Scaurus dominating the market through branded amphorae.

Wool and Textile Production

Wool processing and textile manufacturing were major industries, especially in Pompeii, where sheep farming supplied abundant raw material. The process mirrored modern wool preparation: raw wool was first washed to remove dirt and lanolin, then carded (combed) to align fibers.
Spinning and weaving were typically performed by slaves, either in private households or in larger workshops (fullonicae). The fabric then underwent critical finishing in fulleries—specialized laundries and textile processors. Workers trod cloth in large vats filled with a potent mixture of water, potash, soda, and human urine (collected from street jars for its ammonia content) to clean, shrink, and felt the material. After rinsing and drying, fabrics were bleached using sulfur fumes or dyed in vibrant colors before being sold or tailored into clothing.

Street Vendors, Artisans, and Laborers

The bustling forums, sidewalks, and open plazas of both cities teemed with small traders and itinerant workers. Vendors hawked everyday goods like shoes, fabrics, ceramics, and fresh produce. Professionals such as doctors, musicians, teachers, and scribes offered their services to passersby, often seeking employment from affluent citizens.
Following the devastating earthquake of 62 AD, which caused widespread damage (especially in Pompeii), reconstruction efforts created abundant work for builders, masons, carpenters, and other laborers. Unemployment remained relatively low during the recovery period as the cities rebuilt.

Currency and Cost of Living

The Roman economy was highly monetized, relying on a sophisticated system of coins:

As (copper) — basic small denomination
Dupondius (bronze) = 2 asses
Sestertius (bronze) = 2 dupondii (or 4 asses after reforms)
Denarius (silver) = 4 sestertii
Aureus (gold) = 25 denarii

Smaller denominations like the quadrans (quarter as) were also in circulation.
Daily life in Pompeii and Herculaneum appears to have been relatively affordable compared to Rome itself. A loaf of bread might cost around 1-2 asses, while ordinary wine was inexpensive. Archaeological evidence supports this: many victims of the 79 AD eruption carried modest to substantial sums—some bodies had between 3,000 and 10,000 sesterces, while others held around 200 sestertii or more. Recent discoveries include hoards equivalent to several months' wages for a skilled worker (e.g., 696 sesterces in one case), indicating that a portion of the population enjoyed considerable wealth, even as others scraped by on daily earnings of roughly 8-16 asses for laborers.

Some examples of basic costs are: