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The cost of living and life in the Roman Empire

The Romans were people, and therefore they also had to think about earning and living wages. Here we give some quotations on life and how ordinary citizens of the Roman Empire spent their lives. While Pompeii functioned as a bustling, more industrial and commercial hub with numerous workshops and trading activities, Herculaneum was generally more affluent, residential, and refined—often attracting wealthier residents seeking a quieter seaside lifestyle. Despite these differences, residents of both cities relied on diverse economic activities to earn a living, from large-scale agriculture to small-scale crafts and services.

Elite Estates and Agriculture

The countryside around Pompeii and Herculaneum was dotted with opulent villas owned by affluent Roman elites. These estates served dual purposes: many functioned as luxurious otium retreats, ideal for leisure, relaxation, and philosophical pursuits away from the demands of city life, while others operated as highly efficient, large-scale working farms focused on generating substantial income. The exceptionally fertile volcanic soil on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius supported intensive and diverse agriculture. Key crops included grapes for high-quality wine production, olives for pressing into oil (used in cooking, lighting, and personal care), various grains, a wide array of vegetables, and abundant fruits. Farmers often employed a sophisticated polyculture approach, interplanting crops such as grains or vegetables between orderly rows of vines and olive trees to maximize land use and soil health. Animal husbandry complemented crop cultivation, with sheep raised primarily for their wool (a vital raw material), alongside pigs and cattle for meat, dairy, and labor. The substantial profits from these agricultural ventures concentrated wealth in the hands of a small number of influential local families. These landowners used their land-based riches to wield considerable economic leverage and secure prominent political roles in municipal governance.

Staple Foods and Everyday Provisions

Most basic foodstuffs reached residents through small-scale merchants, independent artisans, and local producers, with some wealthy estate owners also supplying markets from their surplus. Bread formed the cornerstone of the Roman diet and was baked fresh daily in numerous neighborhood bakeries. A standout example is the remarkably preserved pistrinum (bakery) on Cardo V in Herculaneum, where the entire process unfolded on-site: grain was ground using heavy lava-stone mills (often powered by donkeys or slaves), dough was kneaded by hand or with mechanical aids, and dense, unleavened loaves were baked in wood-fired ovens. These fresh loaves were commonly sold right from adjoining shops, street stalls, or mobile vendors.
As thriving coastal ports, both cities drew significant benefits from the nearby sea. Fishing supported many families economically, delivering fresh seafood—such as fish, shellfish, and mollusks—to bustling markets. Surplus catches were frequently processed into garum, the celebrated Roman fermented fish sauce that functioned as a versatile, everyday seasoning (much like modern soy sauce, fish sauce, or Worcestershire sauce in flavor enhancement). Production involved layering whole fish or fish parts (premium versions used mackerel or tuna, while more affordable ones relied on anchovies or smaller species) with layers of salt in large ceramic amphorae, then allowing the mixture to ferment for several weeks or months under the sun. The resulting flavorful liquid was carefully strained and bottled, while the leftover solids were often discarded or repurposed as fertilizer. Pompeii gained particular fame for its superior garum, largely thanks to dominant producer Aulus Umbricius Scaurus, whose branded amphorae (featuring his name and quality claims like "Scaurus’ flower of garum made from mackerel") have been found widely, indicating his near-monopoly on high-end production in the region.

Wool and Textile Production

Textile manufacturing, especially wool-based, ranked among the leading industries, particularly in Pompeii, where nearby sheep farming provided a steady supply of raw wool. Preparation followed a methodical sequence: raw fleece was thoroughly washed to eliminate dirt, grease, and lanolin, then carded and combed to straighten the fibers for easier handling.
Spinning yarn and weaving cloth were labor-intensive tasks usually assigned to slaves, conducted either within private households or in dedicated workshops. The woven fabric then moved to specialized fullonicae (fulleries), which served as industrial laundries and finishing centers. In these facilities, workers—often treading barefoot in large vats—treated the cloth with a strong alkaline solution of water, potash, soda ash, and notably human urine (harvested from public street collection jars for its high ammonia content). This mixture cleaned the material, shrank it slightly for tighter weave, and fulled it to create a denser, felt-like texture. After thorough rinsing and drying, fabrics could be bleached with sulfur fumes for whiteness or dyed in bright, fashionable hues using natural or imported pigments. The finished textiles were then sold to tailors, merchants, or directly to consumers for garments.

Street Vendors, Artisans, and Laborers

The lively forums, wide sidewalks, and public squares of Pompeii and Herculaneum buzzed with activity from small-scale vendors, traveling merchants, and day laborers. Street sellers offered practical items like footwear, woven fabrics, pottery vessels, and seasonal fresh produce. Skilled professionals—including physicians, musicians, tutors, and scribes—advertised their services openly, hoping to attract clients from wealthier passersby or secure ongoing patronage.
The major earthquake of 62 AD inflicted severe damage, especially in Pompeii, but it also sparked a prolonged rebuilding boom. This created plentiful employment opportunities for construction workers, stonemasons, carpenters, plasterers, and other tradespeople, helping keep unemployment relatively low as the cities repaired homes, public buildings, and infrastructure.

Currency and Cost of Living

The Roman economy operated on a well-established coinage system, enabling widespread use of money in daily transactions:

As (copper) — the basic small unit
Dupondius (bronze) = 2 asses
Sestertius (bronze) = 2 dupondii (or 4 asses in some periods)
Denarius (silver) = 4 sestertii
Aureus (gold) = 25 denarii
Smaller fractions, such as the quadrans (¼ as), circulated for minor purchases.

Compared to the high costs in Rome, daily life in Pompeii and Herculaneum seems to have been reasonably affordable. A standard loaf of bread typically cost 1–2 asses, and basic wine remained cheap and accessible. Archaeological finds from the 79 AD eruption victims reinforce this picture: many carried modest to significant cash amounts—some held 3,000–10,000 sesterces, others around 200 sestertii or more. Hoards discovered recently include sums equivalent to several months' earnings for a skilled artisan (for example, one at 696 sesterces). This suggests a stratified society where certain residents amassed considerable savings, while common laborers earned roughly 8–16 asses per day (or about 2–4 sestertii), depending on skill level and demand—enough for basic sustenance but leaving little margin for luxuries.

Some examples of basic costs are: