Pompeii

Location: Pompeii, Campania Map

Destroyed: August 24th, 79 AD (LXXIX AD)
Open: 8:30am- 7:30pm Apr- Oct
8:30am- 5pm Nov- March
Closed: Jan 1, May 1, Dec 25
Tel. 081 857 5347
Entrance Fee: €11 adult; €5.50 EU citizens

Pompeii is an ancient archeological site situated South- East of modern day Naples, Campania region in Italy. It is one of most famous Roman cities largely due to its destruction then volcano Vesuvius erupted and buried it under 20 meters (70 feet) of ash and pumice thus preserving as it existed on August (or October) 24th 79 AD. Unlike many other ancient cities it was not resettled or covered over by later structures and most of the city escaped looting after its accidental discovery in 1748.

Travel Tips
You might want to take sunscreen, water and some food as you go and explore the city. It is large and deserves a whole day to explore. Keep in mind that the weather in summer months in Italy are very hot. Keep well hydrated and cover your head if you can. The only way to travel around this extensive site is my foot or my getting a bike. Either way its can be challenging at times to cover an archaeological site that covers over 163 acres of land.

Interesting facts
Pompeii, the prosperous Roman city near Naples, was buried under volcanic ash from Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD and remained hidden for nearly 1,500 years until its rediscovery. Among its remarkable features are the world’s oldest surviving Roman amphitheater, over 11,000 examples of ancient graffiti revealing everyday thoughts and humor, and perfectly preserved carbonized loaves of bread still in ovens. The site also showcases advanced urban planning with one-way streets and stepping stones, while residents enjoyed a surprisingly healthy, fiber-rich diet thanks to fresh local produce and frequent dining at street-side snack bars called thermopolia.
Chronology of the last day of Pompeii
On August 24, 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted around midday, sending a massive pine-shaped cloud of ash and pumice high into the sky that quickly blocked out the sun. As debris rained down, many residents fled while others sheltered in their homes; roofs began collapsing under the accumulating weight. Eyewitness Pliny the Younger described the chaos from across the bay, while his uncle Pliny the Elder perished during a rescue attempt. By the following morning, deadly pyroclastic flows of superheated gas and ash raced through the city at hurricane speeds, killing those who remained and preserving their final moments in haunting detail.
Roman House and Street
Streets in Pompeii were paved with large stones, featuring high sidewalks and distinctive stepping stones that allowed pedestrians to cross without stepping into mud while permitting chariots to pass. Typical Roman houses centered around an open atrium courtyard that collected rainwater, with surrounding rooms decorated by vibrant frescoes and mosaics. Wealthier homes included peristyle gardens with fountains and statues, private baths, and upper floors, offering a comfortable lifestyle that blended privacy, functionality, and artistic elegance in this bustling port city.
The cost of living and life in Pompeii
Daily life in Pompeii was relatively affordable for its time, with a laborer earning about 5 to 16 asses per day. A loaf of bread cost 1–2 asses, ordinary wine around 1 as per measure, and simple meals at street snack bars were inexpensive. The economy thrived on local wine and olive oil production, trade via the nearby port, and agriculture on fertile volcanic soil, supporting a vibrant mix of shops, public baths, entertainment, and comfortable living for residents ranging from wealthy villa owners to ordinary merchants and workers.
Pompeii Facts for Kids
Nearly 2,000 years ago, the busy city of Pompeii in Italy was suddenly covered by a huge volcano named Mount Vesuvius, which buried houses, streets, and people under thick ash like a giant blanket that preserved everything. Archaeologists later found bread in ovens, colorful wall paintings, and even dog paw prints, along with stepping-stone crossings on the streets. Kids in Pompeii played, went to markets, and watched shows in a big amphitheater, and one famous mosaic warned visitors “Beware of the Dog!” — making the ancient city feel surprisingly alive today.

Buildings

The ancient city of Pompeii boasts an extraordinary array of remarkably preserved buildings that offer profound insights into Roman daily life, entertainment, luxury, public hygiene, and the tragic human cost of the 79 AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Among the most captivating and frequently visited sites are the following highlights, each showcasing unique aspects of the city's history, architecture, and culture.

Garden of Fugitives
This poignant and emotionally powerful site, also known as the Orto dei Fuggiaschi, stands as one of the most haunting reminders of the catastrophe that befell Pompeii. Located in Regio I near the Nocera Gate and the Large Palaestra, it was originally a vineyard with an outdoor triclinium (dining area) under a pergola. In 1961, archaeologists discovered the hollow cavities left by 13 victims—men, women, and children—who had sought refuge here during the eruption, only to be overcome by the ash and pyroclastic flows. By filling these voids with plaster, experts created lifelike casts capturing their final, desperate moments: some huddled together, others shielding loved ones, including a young child. The scene evokes the raw tragedy of ordinary people fleeing in vain.

The House of the Citharist
One of the grandest residences in Pompeii, this sprawling complex (also called Casa del Citarista) in Regio I features luxurious decorations, including a striking bronze statue of Apollo playing the cithara (a lyre-like instrument), which gives the house its name. It includes multiple atriums, peristyles, frescoes depicting mythological scenes (such as Trojan War episodes), intricate mosaics, and private baths—reflecting the opulent lifestyle of Pompeii's elite.

House of Menander
This magnificent aristocratic villa, named after a silver statuette of the Greek playwright Menander found inside, is among the largest and most elaborate homes in Pompeii. Spanning an entire insula, it boasts a grand atrium with geometric mosaic floors, colonnaded peristyles, exquisite Fourth Style frescoes, a private bath suite, and a vast garden. It exemplifies the wealth and sophistication of Pompeii's upper class, with rooms displaying mythological art and high-quality craftsmanship.

Pompeii Amphitheater
Built around 70 BC, this is the oldest known Roman amphitheater and one of Pompeii's most iconic landmarks. Capable of seating up to 20,000 spectators, it hosted gladiatorial combats, animal hunts, and public spectacles. The arena remains remarkably intact, with tiered seating, vaulted corridors, and an impressive view of the surrounding ruins and distant Vesuvius. It even hosted a famous Pink Floyd concert in 1971.

House of Julia Felix
This upscale property, known as Praedia di Giulia Felice, functioned as a luxurious villa combined with commercial spaces, including rental apartments, shops, and a bath complex open to the public. It highlights how wealthy Pompeians like Julia Felix monetized parts of their estates, blending private elegance with business savvy.

Palaestra of Pompeii (Large Palaestra)
Adjacent to the Amphitheater, this vast open-air gymnasium complex features a central swimming pool, colonnaded porticoes on three sides, and training areas. It served as a venue for athletic exercises, military drills, and youth training, underscoring the Roman emphasis on physical fitness and public recreation.

Stabian Baths
Dating back to the 2nd century BC, these are among the oldest and best-preserved public baths in Pompeii. The complex includes separate sections for men and women, with rooms like the apodyterium (changing area), tepidarium (warm room), frigidarium (cold bath), and caldarium (hot room) featuring arched ceilings, hypocaust heating systems, intricate mosaics, and frescoes. They showcase advanced Roman engineering for public hygiene and socializing.

Forum Baths
Smaller than the Stabian Baths but centrally located near the Forum, these baths offer well-preserved examples of Roman bathing culture, with similar room layouts, decorative elements, and efficient heating.

Lupanare or Brothel
The most famous brothel in Pompeii, this two-story building features explicit erotic frescoes on the walls—depicting various positions to serve as a "menu" for clients, many of whom were non-Latin speakers. The ground floor has small cubicles with stone beds, graffiti from patrons, and phallic symbols. It provides a candid glimpse into Roman sexuality, prostitution, and social attitudes.

Theatre
Pompeii's theater complex includes the Large Theatre (for dramatic performances) and the smaller covered Odeon (for music and poetry). Built into a hillside with excellent acoustics, it hosted plays, concerts, and public events, reflecting the city's vibrant cultural scene.

Gladiators' Barracks (Quadriporticus of the Theatres)
Near the theaters, this large rectangular building with a central courtyard was long thought to house gladiators, though recent interpretations suggest it may have been a multipurpose space or elite residence. It still offers insights into training and the world of gladiatorial combat.

Central Baths
These unfinished baths, under construction at the time of the eruption, feature grand architectural plans with large halls, pools, and advanced heating—demonstrating how Pompeii continued to modernize even in its final years.

Itinerary

One-day itinerary

Practical Tips Before You Start
Opening hours — In January (winter): 9:00 AM – 5:00 PM (last entry ~3:30 PM). Arrive at opening to beat crowds and heat.
Tickets — €18 standard (buy online in advance via official site or TicketOne to skip lines; time-slot required in high season, but flexible in winter).
How to arrive — Train to Pompei Scavi – Villa dei Misteri (Circumvesuviana from Naples ~30–40 min). Entrance is a 5-minute walk.
Duration — 5–7 hours for a good pace; realistic full day.
Guided vs self-guided — A guided tour (2–3 hours) is great for context, then explore freely.

Suggested One-Day Itinerary (Start Early!)
8:45–9:00 AM — Arrival & Entry
Enter via Piazza Anfiteatro (eastern gate — easier flow) or Porta Marina. Grab a free paper map.
9:00–10:30 AM — Amphitheatre & Theatres Area
Start at the massive Amphitheatre (oldest Roman amphitheater, built ~70 BC — imagine gladiators & 20,000 spectators!). Walk through the impressive interior.

Then explore the nearby Large Theatre and Small Theatre (Odeon) — beautifully preserved for performances.
10:30 AM–12:00 PM — Heart of the City: The Forum
Head west along Via dell'Abbondanza (main street) to the Forum — Pompeii's political, religious, and commercial center. Admire temples (Apollo, Jupiter, Venus), the Basilica, and the incredible backdrop of Mount Vesuvius.

12:00–1:30 PM — Famous Houses & Plaster Casts
Visit House of the Faun (stunning mosaics) or House of the Vettii (rich frescoes).
Stop at the poignant Garden of the Fugitives or storerooms for the famous plaster casts of victims — haunting reminders of that fateful day in 79 AD.

1:30–2:30 PM — Lunch Break
Eat packed lunch (recommended) or exit briefly for food near the entrances (cafes outside). Rest in shaded areas.
2:30–4:00 PM — Villa of the Mysteries
Walk to the northwest edge (near Porta Ercolano) for the Villa of the Mysteries — a suburban villa with the most spectacular continuous fresco cycle in Pompeii (Dionysian initiation rites — vivid reds & figures).

4:00–5:00 PM — Final Exploration & Exit
Wander more streets, see bakeries (with mills), water fountains, or the Stabian Baths. Exit via Porta Marina or your preferred gate.
Optional Add-Ons (if you have energy/time)

Brothel (Lupanar) with erotic frescoes
More villas along the Street of the Tombs

End of Day
Head back to the train station. Many visitors combine Pompeii with dinner in Naples or Sorrento.

Three-days itinerary

Current practical info (January 2026):
Pompeii Archaeological Park opens 9:00 AM – 5:00 PM (last entry ~3:30 PM) in winter (November–March).
Tickets — Standard entry ≈ €20 (as of mid-January 2026). Book online in advance via the official site or TicketOne (nominative/personalized tickets + 20,000 daily limit).
The 3-day Grande Pompei ticket (~€26) covers Pompeii + suburban villas + Oplontis + Stabiae sites — excellent value if you want to explore broadly.
Winter = fewer crowds, cooler weather (bring layers/rain jacket), but shorter daylight and some houses may close earlier (~4:15 PM).
Wear very comfortable walking shoes (cobblestones!), bring water/snacks (limited inside), and download the official My Pompeii app for maps/audio.

Day 1: Deep Dive into Central Pompeii – The Essentials & Highlights
Focus: Main archaeological park (full day inside the ancient city).
Goal: Cover the most iconic areas without rushing.

9:00 AM — Arrive early at Porta Marina or Piazza Esedra entrance (beat any lines + cooler morning).
Morning (9:00–12:30): Start at the Forum (political heart — temples of Apollo & Jupiter, Basilica). Walk Via dell’Abbondanza (main shopping street with wheel ruts, shops, bars). Visit Forum Baths, Stabian Baths (beautiful stucco & heating system).
Lunch (~12:30–1:30 PM) — Quick café inside or exit briefly to modern Pompei town (many trattorias nearby).
Afternoon (1:30–4:30 PM):
Large Theatre + Small Theatre/Odeon (great acoustics).
House of the Faun (if open — huge + famous Alexander mosaic).
House of the Vettii (stunning frescoes & garden — top luxury home).
Lupanar (small brothel with erotic frescoes).

Late Afternoon: Large Amphitheatre + Palaestra + Garden of the Fugitives (moving plaster casts).
End (~5:00 PM) — Exit & relax with gelato in town.

~6–7 hours walking. A 2–3 hour guided tour (book archaeologist guide) is highly recommended for context.

Day 2: Suburban Villas + Villa of the Mysteries + Boscoreale
Focus: The famous villas outside the city walls + extra treasures (use Pompeii+ or 3-day ticket).
Goal: More intimate/artistic sites, fewer people.

Morning: Enter Pompeii via Porta Ercolano / Villa dei Misteri entrance.
Villa of the Mysteries (1.5–2 hours) — The absolute must-see: incredible cycle of Dionysian mystery cult frescoes (some of the best-preserved Roman paintings anywhere). Atmospheric & less crowded.
Explore Street of the Tombs + suburban necropolis area on the way.

Midday → Villa Regina (Boscoreale) + Antiquarium (recently reopened museum — farm villa + great exhibits on daily life/wine production).
Lunch — Nearby in Boscoreale or back in Pompei town.
Afternoon: Return to Pompeii for deeper exploration of areas you missed on Day 1 (e.g., House of the Golden Cupids, House of the Tragic Poet, or revisit Forum area slowly).
Alternative (if you prefer slower pace): Spend full afternoon wandering residential quarters & lesser-visited insulae (apartment blocks).

Pro tip — Use the free shuttle (if available with multi-site ticket) between connected sites.

Day 3: Nearby Vesuvian Sites – Oplontis, Stabiae & Optional Herculaneum/Vesuvius
Focus: Variety & contrast with other buried sites.
Goal: Broader "Grande Pompei" experience.
Option A – Luxury Villas & Stabiae (recommended for relaxed pace)

Morning — Villa of Poppaea at Oplontis (Torre Annunziata, ~15–20 min by train/car). Enormous imperial villa (possibly Nero's wife) with spectacular frescoes, pools, gardens — feels like a Roman palace.
Lunch — In Torre Annunziata or back toward Pompei.
Afternoon — Stabiae (Castellammare di Stabia): Visit Villa Arianna and/or Villa San Marco (beautiful sea-view villas with mosaics & frescoes) + Libero D’Orsi Museum (archaeological finds).
Evening — Return to base; enjoy a seafood dinner in nearby Sorrento or Naples.

Option B – Classic Combo (if you have energy)

Morning: Herculaneum (Ercolano — smaller, deeper burial, better preserved wood/upper floors, fewer crowds than Pompeii).
Afternoon: Mount Vesuvius (hike to crater — ~30 min drive + 30–45 min walk up; book transport/tour). Stunning views & volcanic geology.
Note: Vesuvius requires good fitness/weather; check conditions.

Which option? Choose A if you love art/architecture & want calm; choose B for the classic "Pompeii + Vesuvius" combo.

General Tips for 3 Days
Pace — Pompeii is huge (~44 hectares); 3 days lets you see ~70–80% meaningfully without exhaustion.
Transport — Circumvesuviana train is cheap/easy (Naples ↔ Pompei Scavi ~35–40 min).
Food — Bring snacks/water; eat main meals in modern Pompei/Sorrento.
Guides — Worth it on Day 1; self-explore Days 2–3 with app/map.
Weather — January can be rainy/cool — flexible plan helps.

City by regions (regio)

Pompeii regions

Early archeologists divided Pompeii archeological site into regions or regio in Italian. These groups of buildings are divided by the largest streets of Pompeii. Each part of the city has its own unique set of buildings. It is hard to visit the whole site in one day so it can be handy to plan your visit by visiting regions of the city.

Pompeii Forum (Regio VII)

The Forum of Pompeii was originally the central open space in the settlement. The city spread and grew in size. By the time of the eruption it was located in the South- West corner of the settlement. It measured 157 meters by 38 meters. It was lined by commercial, public and religious buildings important in the daily lives of common Roman citizens. The central plaza was lined by two rows of colonnade. The bottom row consisted of Doric columns, while the top row was lined by Ionic columns. Additionally there were several statues that graced this important part of the city. Unfortunately many of them were destroyed by an earlier earthquake of 62 AD and were never rebuild. The only thing that reminds of their former existence are pedestals that were left abandoned. Two main entrances were located at the north of the plaza with two triumphal arches. The bigger eastern arch was dedicated to Germanicus, step son of emperor Tiberius who made his name by defeating Germanic tribes in 12 AD just few years after these tribes under leadership of Arminius dealt a humiliating blow to the Roman Empire by exterminating three Roman legions under leadership of Publius Quinctilius Varus in Teutoburg Forest.

Gates and Streets

Pompeii Gates and Streets

Like any other major city in the ancient Roman Empire, Pompeii was protected by towers and defensive walls. The city walls that reached 3 kilometers (3220 meters) in length with 12 towers defended the weakest regions in the defense of the city. Many of the city’s towers were built back in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. Later, the Romans rebuilt some of them. As a material for the construction of the fortress walls, the inhabitants of Pompeii used tufa (light, porous rock) for the exterior cladding. The space between the stone walls was filled with earth. The walls were strong enough, and construction accelerated significantly.

There were seven gates through which it was possible to get into the city. These were the Porta Marina or the Sea Gate, the Herculane Gate, the Vesuvian Gate, the Nola Gate, the Sarno, the Nuceria Gates and the Stabiae Gates. Some guides talk about the gates of Capua, but in fact no evidence about the existence of these gates was found during archaeological excavations. Between the Herculane and the Vesuvian Gate, we can see the damage. These are the consequences of the bombing of Roman siege weapons during the siege of Sulla.

The Vesuvian Gate and the Gate of Sarno are in poorest state of preservation. A 62 year earthquake caused serious damage to the entire city. Since the Romans were accustomed to living in a world without invading barbarians from the North, the municipal authorities were not in a hurry to repair the military fortifications.

Pompeii City Walls and Towers
The ancient city walls of Pompeii, stretching approximately 3.2 kilometers around the urban perimeter, represent a remarkable evolution of defensive architecture spanning several centuries from the 6th century BC onward. Initially constructed with tufa blocks (pappamonte wall) and later reinforced with Sarno limestone orthostates and opus incertum techniques, the fortifications featured an internal earth embankment (agger) for added strength, double parapets, and numerous towers added in the late 3rd to early 2nd century BC to enhance surveillance and defense. These walls not only protected the growing Samnite and later Roman settlement but also adapted to urban expansion, with gates providing controlled access to major roads. Today, well-preserved sections with towers offer visitors a vivid glimpse into Pompeii's military history, siege resilience during the Social War, and the engineering prowess that allowed the city to thrive until the catastrophic eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.
Stabia Gate
The Stabia Gate (Porta di Stabia), located in the southern part of Pompeii's walls, served as a vital southern entrance connecting the city to the important road toward Stabiae and the coastal areas. Excavated in phases during the 19th century, this gate features robust limestone construction with evidence of Oscan inscriptions on boundary stones (cippi) and was part of the broader fortification system that withstood sieges. It led directly into the Via Stabiana, a bustling thoroughfare lined with shops, houses, and commercial properties in the nearby insulae. For modern visitors, approaching Pompeii via this gate highlights the transition from the necropolis outside to the lively urban fabric within, underscoring its role in daily trade, travel, and defense throughout Pompeii's Samnite and Roman periods.
Nocera Gate
The Nocera Gate (Porta Nocera or Porta di Nocera), positioned on the southeastern side of Pompeii's fortifications, was a key gateway leading toward the town of Nuceria (modern Nocera) and facilitating southern connections. Built into the layered defensive walls, it exemplifies the city's adaptive architecture with its strategic placement along the perimeter. This gate provided access to a major road running parallel to the walls, making it an essential hub for movement of goods and people in ancient times. Its enduring structure allows contemporary explorers to appreciate Pompeii's urban planning and the integration of military needs with civic life before the 79 AD burial.
Necropolis at the Nocera Gate
The Necropolis at the Nocera Gate stands as the largest and most extensively studied burial ground outside Pompeii's walls, stretching along a 250-meter stretch of road just beyond the southeastern gate. Featuring a variety of tombs ranging from modest burials for freedmen and middle-class citizens to more elaborate monuments like the Tomb of Eumachia, this extramural cemetery reflects Roman funerary customs, social hierarchy, and family commemorations in the 1st century BC to 79 AD. Excavations reveal inscriptions, architectural details, and botanical insights into ancient rituals, offering profound insights into the lives, professions, and beliefs of Pompeii's diverse population. Visitors today walk among these silent witnesses, gaining a moving perspective on life and death in the shadow of Vesuvius.
Sarno Gate
The Sarno Gate (Porta di Sarno), situated in the eastern section of Pompeii's city walls, connected the city to the fertile Sarno River plain and surrounding agricultural lands, playing a crucial role in trade and local transit. This gate, part of the pre-Roman and Roman defensive network, features substantial stone construction and was one of the seven primary entrances that shaped the city's topography. Recent archaeological work near the gate has uncovered additional funerary monuments, highlighting its suburban character. For travelers exploring Pompeii, the Sarno Gate area provides context on the city's economic reliance on regional resources and its layered history of fortification and expansion.
Nola Gate
The Nola Gate (Porta di Nola), located in the northeastern part of the walls, is one of Pompeii's most monumental and best-preserved gates, dating back to the pre-Roman Samnite period. It led toward the town of Nola and was designed with strong defensive features typical of the era, including robust arches and integration with the agger system. This gate handled significant traffic and reflects the city's strategic importance as a crossroads. Modern visitors can admire its architectural grandeur, which exemplifies the evolution of Pompeian fortifications and offers a tangible link to the Samnite and early Roman defensive strategies.
Vesuvius Gate
The Vesuvius Gate (Porta Vesuvio), positioned on the northern side of Pompeii facing toward Mount Vesuvius, was undergoing significant reconstruction at the time of the 79 AD eruption, highlighting ongoing urban improvements. It served as a major entry point for commercial traffic along a principal road, facilitating movement of goods into the heart of the city. The gate's structure, embedded in the city walls with associated towers, demonstrates the blend of functionality and fortification. Today, it provides insight into Pompeii's final days and the constant adaptation of its infrastructure amid seismic activity preceding the disaster.
Herculaneum Gate
The Herculaneum Gate (Porta Ercolano or Porta di Ercolano), on the northwestern side of Pompeii, is a grand triple-arched structure that once led toward the neighboring town of Herculaneum and the coast. Known also as the Porta Salis (Salt Gate) due to its connection to salt works, it bears scars from the Roman siege during the Social War in 89 BC. This gate, flanked by impressive necropoleis with notable tombs, was a primary entrance for visitors and goods. Its well-preserved state and surrounding funerary landscape make it one of the most evocative entry points for understanding Pompeii's connectivity and historical conflicts.
Porta Marina (Marina Gate or Sea Gate)
The Porta Marina, also known as the Marina Gate or Sea Gate, is the most famous and frequently used entrance to the archaeological site today, located on the southwestern side of Pompeii's walls and originally providing direct access to the ancient port and the Bay of Naples. Though less monumental than some contemporaries, it offered quick routes to the Forum and civic center, making it integral to daily life. The gate's name reflects its maritime importance, now situated farther inland due to volcanic changes in the coastline. Visitors entering here experience an immediate immersion into Pompeii's urban core, with the gate symbolizing the city's historical link to sea trade and its enduring allure for explorers.

Main Streets of Pompeii

By planning the streets of Pompeii, you can easily recognize the original settlement of the Oskan people from the districts of Pompeii that were added later. As the Roman way of life gradually became established in the city, the layout acquired the strict direction of straight streets, which intersected at right angles. The irregular arrangement of the streets is still evident around the territory of the Forum, but such chaotic buildings were replaced by the Roman tradition of building the city. The grid of roads of Pompeii consisted of streets that went from east to west (Decumani) and from north to south (Cardi). We will discuss some of the main streets in more detail here. All street names are modern, but the ancient names of some Pompeii streets are known.

Via delle Abbondanza (Decumanus Maximus)
Via delle Abbondanza was one of the two main cities of Decumani (the other Via di Nola was almost parallel to its continuation of Via Dell Fortuna and Via delle Terme). This street has an orientation from east to west. The street got its name thanks to the fountain at one of the intersections, which was mistakenly identified with the personification of the Plentiful gifts. Abbondanza in Italian means "abundance". Later it became clear that the image had nothing to do with abundance, and most likely had a simple decorative purpose. However, the name of the street decided not to change.

The western part of Via dell 'Abbondanza connected the streets of Stabiana, Cardo Maximus, with the Forum, after which the street continued under the name of Via Marina or Sea Street. The first segment of Via delle Abbondanza belongs to the very early stage of development of Pompeii, which grew up around the Forum. As the city continued to expand, the street was expanded beyond the Via Stabiana until it reached the Sarno Gate.

This long street linked the most important areas of the city from the Forum in the west to the Stabina Banya and the amphitheater with the Great Palestra in the east. The intersection with Via Stabiana was known as the intersection of Holconius, in honor of the statue of M. Holconius Rufus, who once stood here. Not far away was the Holconius Rufus House itself.

Via Stabiana (Cardo Maximus)
Via Stabiana or Cardo Maximus as it was called by the ancient Romans, is one of the three main roads of Pompeii, which were oriented from north to south. The rest of the cardo roads were Via di Mercurio, Via del Foro, Via delle Scula and Via di Nozera.

The Via Stabiana road in antiquity was one of the oldest. It led outside the city to the neighboring city of Stabia and Sorrentum in the South. Hence the modern name of the street itself. As the city developed, the road became the main artery with the axis from north to south. The road ran from the Vesuvian Gate in the north and united the parallel streets of Decumani Via dell Abbondanza and Via di Noli. These streets thus form the pattern of the street grid.

Pay attention to the stones on the roads. These are pedestrian crossings. During the rains, the drainage system could not cope with all the water and the streets often flooded. Pedestrians could cross the roads on these stones without wetting their feet. At the same time, carts and carriages could pass between the stones.

Via Consolare (Via Consolare)
Via Consolare forms the northwestern boundary of the street network of Pompeii. Part of the street runs parallel to the city walls. It was one of the most ancient roads of the city. She led to the nearby city of Kuma. Its obvious cultural and commercial significance was complemented by the fact that it led to Salina Hercules or the salty lagoon. This region was located on the coast near the town of Torre Annunziata. Here salt was mined for citizens. Hence the ancient name of the street Via Sarina or Salt Road. By the way, the Gerkulan’s Gate, through which Via Consolare passes, was also called Vera Sarina or the Salt Gate.

Around the middle of the 2nd century BC Via Consolare, like other city streets, was paved with polygonal basalt blocks. The road stones (cippi), written in Oscan, testify to this and say that the aedils of the Samnite period paved this road.

Country Villas in Pompeii

Outside the city of Pompeii (in the north-west) you can see several villas that belonged to the richest and most influential people in the city. People who lived here did not want to hustle and walk through the narrow streets of the city. They preferred to live in nature. Pax Romana or the Roman world, begun by Emperor Octavian Augustus, convinced the Romans that their empire was invincible and that power over the conquered nations and tribes was unshakable. They were not afraid to settle outside of the defensive walls of the city of Pompeii. Here you can see the most beautiful frescoes, which in many ways became a symbol of ancient Roman art. In order to get here you need to get out of the Gate of Herculanum. On the left were the Villas of Diomedes and then Villa Cicero.

Villa Imperiale
The Villa Imperiale, also known as the Suburban Villa or Villa Suburbana of Porta Marina, is an elegant patrician residence built in the early imperial period just outside Pompeii's city walls near the Marina Gate. Constructed on multiple terraces descending the slope to offer stunning panoramic views over the Gulf of Naples, the villa featured a remarkable 80-meter-long colonnade with 43 columns originally adorned with white stucco fluting against black-paneled walls. Though severely damaged by the 62 AD earthquake and never fully rebuilt, its surviving elements include a grand oecus (dining hall) with exquisite examples of Third and Fourth Style frescoes, marble floors, and residential quarters that highlight the luxurious lifestyle of Pompeii's elite. Visitors can appreciate this architectural gem for its integration with the landscape and its representation of refined Roman suburban living.
Villa of Cicero
The Villa of Cicero, excavated in 1749 outside the Herculaneum Gate along the Via dei Sepolcri, is a suburban Roman residence traditionally associated with the famous orator Marcus Tullius Cicero, though direct ownership remains unconfirmed. This luxurious villa yielded some of the finest ancient mosaics ever discovered, including the iconic "Street Musicians" mosaic depicting masked performers and other intricate scenes signed by master craftsmen. Its layout and decorations reflect the high status of its inhabitants, with rooms adorned in sophisticated frescoes and architectural elements typical of elite Pompeian homes. Today, while the structure itself offers insights into early excavation history, the artifacts recovered from it, now housed in museums like Naples' National Archaeological Museum, continue to captivate scholars and visitors with their artistic mastery and cultural significance.
Villa of Diomedes
The Villa of Diomedes, one of the largest and most impressive suburban villas in Pompeii, stands just outside the Herculaneum Gate along the Via dei Sepolcri and was excavated between 1771 and 1774. Spanning around 3,500 square meters across multiple levels and terraces overlooking the ancient coastline, it belonged to Marcus Arrius Diomedes, a wealthy freedman, and featured luxurious amenities including private baths, a large garden with a pool, banqueting rooms with sea views, and extensive living quarters. Tragically, during the 79 AD eruption, numerous victims sought shelter here, with their plaster casts providing poignant evidence of the disaster. The villa exemplifies the opulent lifestyle of Pompeii's upper classes and remains a highlight for its scale, architectural innovation, and historical drama.
Villa of the Figured Capitals
The Villa of the Figured Capitals (Casa dei Capitelli Figurati or Villa delle Colonne a Mosaico), located in Regio VII, is renowned for its distinctive entrance pillars crowned with elaborate sculpted capitals depicting human figures, mythological beings, and decorative motifs. Excavated in the 1830s, this residence showcases typical Pompeian domestic architecture enhanced by unique artistic flourishes that give it its name. The figured capitals, some of which are preserved in the site's Antiquarium, highlight the creativity and wealth of its owners through high-quality stone carving integrated into the structure. Though parts of the villa may have restricted access, it offers valuable insight into personalized Roman residential design and the blending of functional and artistic elements in ancient homes.
Villa of the Mysteries
The Villa of the Mysteries (Villa dei Misteri), a sprawling suburban estate located about 400 meters northwest of Pompeii's walls near the Herculaneum Gate, is one of the most famous and best-preserved Roman villas in the world. Built in the 2nd century BC and later expanded, it features around 60 rooms, including a large peristyle, working areas for wine production, baths, and luxurious living spaces. Its greatest treasure is the spectacular fresco cycle in the "Initiation Room," a vivid red-background frieze depicting life-size figures engaged in what is widely interpreted as a Dionysian mystery cult initiation ritual involving a bride, deities, satyrs, and symbolic scenes. Excavated starting in 1909, the villa provides an unparalleled window into ancient Roman art, religion, and private life, making it an essential stop for understanding the spiritual and cultural world of Pompeii before the 79 AD eruption.

Pompeii and the Coliseum

At first glance, it might seem surprising that the catastrophic destruction of Pompeii could have any direct link to the construction of Rome’s grandest arena and, by extension, the broader Roman Empire. Yet the connection is both logical and historically significant.
In June 79 AD, the new emperor Titus ascended the throne following the death of his father, Vespasian, on June 23. Barely two months later, in late August (or possibly October, according to some scholarly debates) 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius erupted violently, burying the thriving city of Pompeii, the nearby resort town of Herculaneum, Stabiae, and numerous smaller settlements under layers of ash, pumice, and pyroclastic flows.
This disaster struck at a vulnerable moment for the young Flavian dynasty. The sudden loss of a major economic and cultural center in Campania—along with the deaths of thousands—seriously damaged the new emperor’s public image. Natural disasters were often interpreted in antiquity as signs of divine displeasure, and Titus needed to act decisively to restore confidence.

Titus’ Relief Efforts
Titus responded with notable compassion and energy. He personally visited the devastated region twice, organizing and overseeing relief operations. He appointed two former consuls to manage reconstruction efforts in Campania, provided financial aid to survivors, and redirected the property of those who perished without heirs toward rebuilding the affected cities.
The “lunar landscape” of ash-covered ruins, charred fields, and ghostly remnants left a profound impression on him, reinforcing his determination to demonstrate imperial strength and benevolence.

Accelerating the Colosseum
To bolster his popularity and distract from the tragedies plaguing the early months of his reign (which also included a major fire in Rome and a plague outbreak), Titus ordered the rapid completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre—today known as the Colosseum. Construction had begun under Vespasian around 70–72 AD on the site of Nero’s former Golden House, symbolizing a return of public space to the people.
Under intense pressure, Titus invited numerous private contractors and work crews to speed up the final stages, particularly the interior lining and seating tiers of the massive structure. The haste led to coordination challenges: different teams worked with varying rulers, measurement units (such as Roman feet versus local variants), and construction techniques without sufficient standardization. As a result, some horizontal layers and seating sections show visible irregularities where the work crews met.
Visitors to the Colosseum can still observe these junctions today—subtle misalignments in the stone courses that reveal the rushed, multi-team effort. Yet the pragmatic Romans prioritized functionality and grand scale over perfect precision. These minor imperfections did not compromise the amphitheater’s structural integrity or its ability to host spectacular events. In 80 AD, Titus inaugurated the completed Colosseum with over 100 days of lavish games, including gladiatorial combats, animal hunts, and even mock naval battles, which helped solidify his reputation as a generous and capable ruler.
In this way, the tragedy of Pompeii indirectly contributed to one of Rome’s most enduring architectural icons, turning a moment of crisis into a lasting symbol of Flavian resilience and public entertainment. This episode highlights how Roman emperors often used monumental building projects to reinforce political legitimacy in the face of adversity.

People and animals of Pompeii

The Pompeii archaeological site stands as one of the most extraordinary and haunting places in human history. Buried under layers of volcanic ash and pumice for nearly 1,700 years, it offers an unparalleled, time-capsule view into the daily lives of ordinary Romans—their homes, clothing, tools, furniture, food, and personal belongings preserved in remarkable detail. While the chaotic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD destroyed many bodies through intense heat and falling debris, it also created hollow voids where organic matter decomposed within the hardened ash and pyroclastic material. In the 19th century, archaeologist Giuseppe Fiorelli pioneered a groundbreaking technique: pouring liquid plaster into these cavities to capture the exact shapes of the victims in their final moments.
To date, archaeologists have uncovered more than 1,000 human remains in Pompeii alone, with hundreds more still likely buried in the unexcavated portions of the city and surrounding areas. These casts and skeletons reveal not only the physical appearance and clothing of the inhabitants but also poignant details about their desperate last actions, social status, and even intimate aspects of their personal lives.

The Eruption and Its Victims
The catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius unfolded in devastating phases. The initial stages unleashed a rain of pumice stones (lapilli) and ash that collapsed rooftops and buried buildings under several meters of debris. Many residents died during this phase while sheltering inside their homes. Those who survived longer faced the subsequent pyroclastic surges—superheated clouds of gas, ash, and rock traveling at hurricane speeds with temperatures high enough to cause instant thermal shock and death.
The rapidly cooling ash and debris formed a rigid shell around the bodies, perfectly preserving their positions, facial expressions of agony or surprise, and even details like clothing folds or clutched possessions. This natural molding process has given modern visitors an intensely personal connection to the ancient past.

Iconic Plaster Casts and Their Stories
Among the most famous are the plaster casts created by Fiorelli in the 1860s and 1870s. These haunting figures capture people from every social stratum—wealthy elites, laborers, slaves, and families—united in the same catastrophe.
Recent scientific advances, particularly DNA analysis and forensic studies, have rewritten many of these stories:
A group long interpreted as a mother shielding her child has been revealed through genetics to be two unrelated males.
Another pair, once romantically described as embracing lovers or sisters, includes at least one genetic male, highlighting how initial assumptions about relationships and family ties can be misleading.
Other compelling finds include a woman in her 30s to 50s who clutched jewelry and coins while sheltering with a younger man in a house, and a possible physician who fled carrying surgical instruments and money.
Victims discovered near the city gates indicate frantic attempts to escape toward the coast, while others perished in streets, gardens, or while trying to protect their homes.
These discoveries continue as excavations progress. New finds regularly add layers of human drama, showing people in the midst of everyday activities—eating, working, or seeking shelter—when disaster struck.

A Deeper Human Connection
The victims of Pompeii humanize one of history’s most famous natural disasters. Through the casts, skeletons, and associated artifacts, we see real individuals caught in an unimaginable crisis rather than abstract historical figures. Modern techniques like DNA testing, CT scans, and isotopic analysis are revealing their diets, health conditions, places of origin, and even possible family connections, painting an ever-richer picture of life in a prosperous Roman port city.

Christianity and Judaism

Pompeii was not only a vibrant commercial and residential city but also a place of diverse religious beliefs long before the catastrophic eruption of 79 AD. Among its inhabitants were early followers of Christianity and members of the Jewish community, adding fascinating layers to our understanding of the multicultural society that thrived in the shadow of Mount Vesuvius.

Early Christians in Pompeii
Evidence confirms that Christians lived in Pompeii before the disaster. One of the most significant discoveries is ancient graffiti found on the walls of what is known as the House of the Christians (or Christian House). This inscription represents the oldest known reference to Christians and Christianity within the entire Roman Empire.
This presence aligns with historical accounts of the spread of the new faith. The Apostle Paul is believed to have preached in the nearby port town of Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli) at the northern end of the Gulf of Naples during his journey to Rome around 60 AD. It is highly plausible that some of his converts or their immediate followers settled in the prosperous city of Pompeii shortly afterward.
This historical detail makes the depiction of a Christian priest in Karl Bryullov’s famous 1833 painting The Last Day of Pompeii remarkably realistic and historically grounded. The artist captured a sense of spiritual solace amid chaos that would have been entirely possible in the final hours of the city.

The Jewish Presence
Jewish residents also lived in Pompeii. Historical records preserve the name of one prominent individual: Drusilla, who perished in the eruption along with her young son, Marcus Antonius Agrippa.
Drusilla was a member of the Herodian dynasty — the daughter of Herod Agrippa I, and granddaughter of the infamous Herod the Great, the king who, according to the Gospel of Matthew, ordered the Massacre of the Innocents in an attempt to kill the infant Jesus. She was also the wife of Antonius Felix, the Roman procurator of Judea. Drusilla is mentioned directly in the Bible in the Acts of the Apostles (24:24):
“Several days later, when Felix came with his wife Drusilla, who was Jewish, he sent for Paul and listened to him on the subject of faith in Christ Jesus.”
Despite this documented presence, archaeologists have not yet uncovered clear artifacts or inscriptions directly linked to Jewish religious practice in Pompeii. This absence is understandable given the historical context: the eruption occurred in 79 AD, only nine years after the Roman destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple in 70 AD. In the tense aftermath of the Jewish-Roman War, any Jewish residents (especially if they were free citizens rather than slaves) would likely have kept a low profile, concealing religious symbols and practices to avoid drawing attention in a Roman city.

A Window into Ancient Religious Life
The traces of both early Christians and Jews in Pompeii highlight the city’s role as a cosmopolitan melting pot on the Bay of Naples. These communities coexisted alongside traditional Roman pagan cults, Egyptian mystery religions (such as the cult of Isis, which had a prominent temple in Pompeii), and other faiths.
For modern visitors exploring the archaeological site, these details add profound emotional and historical depth. Walking the same streets where early Christians may have gathered in secret house churches or where a Herodian princess met her fate brings the ancient world vividly to life. They remind us that Pompeii was not just a city frozen in time by ash, but a living community of real people with diverse beliefs, hopes, and fears on the eve of one of history’s most dramatic natural disasters.

Public Buildings and Crafts

The houses of the ancient Romans did not differ in diversity. It cannot be said that they were built under one carbon copy, but in general they followed the same plan. For more information about everyday life and Roman houses, see the links above (House and Street) to learn about Roman architecture and general city planning. Many aspects of the city will become clearer.

Under the Romans, Pompeii underwent an extensive process of urban development, especially during the period of Augustus. Public buildings include an amphitheater, a palestra with central sodium (cella natatoria) or a swimming pool and an aqueduct providing water for more than 25 street fountains, at least four public baths, and a large number of private houses (houses) and businesses. Modern scholars have called the amphitheater a model of sophisticated design, especially in the area of crowd control.

In addition to the forum, many other service areas were found: Makellum (excellent grocery market), Pistrinum (mill), Thermopolium (fast food place serving hot and cold dishes and drinks) and cauponae (small cafes) with a bad reputation, habitat for thieves and prostitution services. An amphitheater and two theaters were found, along with Palestra or the gymnasium (sports complex). Hotel (1000 square meters) was found near the city; It is now called the Grand Hotel Muretsin. Geothermal energy is supplied with channel heating for baths and houses. At least one building, Lupanar, was dedicated to prostitution. First floor had small rooms for common citizens. While the second floor was more open and held lavish sex orgies. Unfortunately second floor is usually closed to tourists.

Modern archaeologists excavated gardens and urban areas to identify the main agricultural products in the economy of Pompeii. Pompeii was fortunate to have a fertile, fertile patch of soil for collecting various crops. It was found that the soil around Vesuvius, prior to its eruption, has good water-holding properties, which means access to productive agriculture. Winds from the Tyrrhenian Sea provided soil moisture, despite the hot and dry climate. Barley, wheat and millet were produced together with wine and olive oil, abundant for export to other regions.

Evidence of the importation of wine from Pompeii at the national level in the most prosperous years can be found from artifacts found, such as wine bottles in Rome. For this reason, the vineyards were of great importance for the economy of Pompeii. The agricultural politician Columella suggested that every vineyard in Rome should produce a quota of three sorts of wine per yagerum, otherwise the vineyard would be uprooted. Nutrient-rich lands near Pompeii were extremely effective in this regard and could often exceed these requirements by a wide margin, thus creating incentives for local wineries. While wine was exported for the economy of Pompeii, most other agricultural commodities were probably produced in quantities corresponding to the consumption of the city.

The remnants of large formations built wineries were found in the forum Boarium, covered with cemented casts from the eruption of Vesuvius. It is assumed that these historic vineyards are strikingly similar in structure to modern vineyards throughout Italy.

Charred remains of food plants, roots, seeds and pollen have been found in the gardens of Pompeii, Herculaneum and the Roman villa in Torre Annunziata. They found that wheat, Italian millet, common millet, walnuts, pine nuts, chestnuts, hazelnuts, olives, figs, pears, onions, garlic, peaches, carob, grapes, dates, and more were consumed here.

Water supply

For centuries, the water supply for the people of Pompeii was one of the biggest problems. Water was freely accessible only from the Sarno or from springs on Vesuvius. If you wanted to get water in the city, you had to build cisterns or - because of the location on a plateau - dig very deep wells. These wells represented a remarkable feat of engineering. A well found at one of the highest points at the Herculanean Gate was 35 meters deep. Several fountains were found in the city area, mostly located centrally at street crossings. An even larger number, however, existed on property or, especially in later times, even inside buildings. However, it is unclear whether these wells were only used for private supply. After the construction of the aqueduct, the wells were abandoned and – partly used as waste pits – filled up over time. It is believed that before the aqueduct was built, most of the buildings also had a cistern. It can be assumed that this water was primarily used as industrial water – for example for washing, for watering the gardens or for watering livestock. So far, however, there have been no more detailed investigations of the cisterns, since these are usually very unstable and the risk for the archaeologists of being buried during the investigation is too great. Examining the Insula Arriana Polliana, the excavators found a huge cistern that ran the full width of the building (30 meters). Holes through which water could be drawn from the cistern were found in four of the six shops (tabernae) located there.

In the 1st century B.C. an aqueduct was built, which greatly improved the supply of fresh water to the city. To the east of Vesuvius, a line branched off from the existing Serino line. The Pompeian Aqueduct, which ran mostly underground as far as Pompeii, met the city at its highest point at the Vesuvius Gate. A castellum (Latin for "water castle" in this context) was erected there as a distribution building, in which the water was cleaned through two large lead screens - first a coarse screen and then a fine screen - and distributed to three inlets via three weirs. From here it flowed into the city in lead pipes that could have a diameter of up to 30 centimeters. The first inflow fed the public water supply, the second the thermal baths and the third the private connections in the houses. The latter two connections could be closed in the event of water shortages.

The water was distributed via a network of elevated tanks (13 known so far), which could be up to six meters high and like the pipes were made of lead. Their most important function was to equalize pressure. There seems to have been water damage due to the high water pressure in the lead pipes, which is evidenced by various repair marks on the pipes.

Despite many connections in private households, public fountains were the most important for supplying the population with water. These fountains were mostly positioned at crossings. So far 42 wells have been located, indicating a fairly high density in the water supply. Due to the distribution of these public fountains, a radius of approx. 50 meters is assumed as the area of use.

As much as the city went to great lengths to supply water, it paid little attention to its disposal. Since there was a natural gradient in the city, the sewage was simply discharged via the streets.

Toilets, pipes and everything related to water and sewage

The Romans were true masters of engineering. They constructed sophisticated underground networks — including aqueducts, cisterns, and distribution pipes — to bring fresh water into Pompeii from distant springs. At the same time, they built an impressive drainage and sewer system to carry away wastewater and prevent flooding in the city.
Remarkably, parts of Pompeii’s ancient drainage infrastructure still function today, more than 1,900 years after the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The same can be said of Roman roads: many have endured for over two millennia with incredible durability. While Roman road construction deserves its own detailed exploration, it remains one of the most enduring legacies of their engineering genius.
When visiting the well-preserved private houses and shops in Pompeii, pay attention to a small, often tucked-away room. These modest spaces — frequently located at the back of the house or beneath a staircase — served as private toilets (latrines). Wealthier homes had them integrated near kitchens for convenient access to running water.
A dedicated underground sewer system collected waste from these toilets and channeled it out of the city, often directing it into street drains or communal cesspools. Many private latrines were not directly connected to the main sewers; instead, sloping floors allowed waste to be flushed with water into street channels.
Fascinatingly, the study of these ancient sewers and latrines has provided archaeologists with a rich source of information about the daily diet and health of Pompeii’s inhabitants. By analyzing preserved organic remains, parasite eggs, and food residues, researchers have gained insights into what people ate — from grains, fruits, and vegetables to seafood and meats — revealing both common staples and variations based on social status.
This combination of practical sanitation, reliable water supply, and durable infrastructure highlights why Roman cities like Pompeii were among the most advanced urban centers of the ancient world. Walking through the excavated streets today, one can’t help but marvel at how effectively the Romans managed the essentials of city life — water in, waste out — in ways that still impress modern visitors and engineers alike.

Roman toilets Pompeii

The largest public toilets on the Pompeii Forum.

Economy

Although Pompeii is the most important and meaningful source for the economic history of antiquity, the evaluation of the finds in this context is not always easy. Academics have long debated whether Pompeii was a producer or consumer city. According to current knowledge, a mixed form must be assumed.

Food supply

The city's food supply seems to have been provided, at least in part, by external suppliers from the surrounding area, such as the villae rusticae in Boscoreale. These companies were probably specialized in the production of certain products. In Boscoreale, for example, 18 clay barrels (dolia) were found buried in the ground, a large wine press and an underground reservoir that could hold 10,000 liters of wine. Wine cultivation had been around since the 1st century BC. one of the most important economic sectors in the area. It is also known that the Eumachians and the Holconians had wineries outside the city and made a considerable profit from them. The Campanian wine was also exported, not least a considerable part of the supply of the city of Rome (20 to 25) came from the Vesuvius area. But even in Pompeii itself viticulture is proven. On the almost completely undeveloped Insula II 5, which borders directly on the eastern city wall and on the south of the end section of the Via dell'Abbondanza, there was a wine plantation. The holes in the vines could be detected.

The city was also supplied with goods via the river port at the mouth of the Sarno. Last but not least fish came from here. The fish sauce garum, which was an important food of the time, was made here in larger production facilities for the city. The supply of meat can only have come from outside, since it was not possible to keep a large number of animals within the city. Smaller numbers of small animals could certainly be kept inside the houses, but proof of this is difficult to provide.

The supply of fruit and vegetables, on the other hand, could take place at least on a small scale within the city in the gardens belonging to the houses. Vegetable gardens are also proven in many houses at the time of the sinking in 79 AD. In some cases there were even larger inner-city areas under cultivation. It cannot be said whether this was enough to fully supply the city, but it is unlikely to be assumed.

Unlike with fruit and vegetables, there was hardly any self-sufficiency with pasta. While hand mills were usually found in the villas outside the city, which speak for self-sufficiency with flour, these were hardly found in the city. However, it is noticeable that there were many bakeries within the city, interestingly some with and others without mills. As a result, smaller bakeries in particular in the old town and in obvious metropolitan areas of the city, which had neither space for mills nor for storing larger quantities of grain, had to be supplied with flour externally. It is possible that these smaller bakeries were branches of the larger ones, which usually had three mills, and occasionally more.

Crafts and handicrafts

In the Roman Empire, most handicraft products were produced for the local trade market in small businesses (officina), in which members of the family and often also some wage laborers and slaves worked. These companies or craftsmen usually made their goods to order. The workshops they ran (tabernae) were mostly located on the ground floor of tenement blocks (insulae) in the cities. The evidence in Pompeii is particularly numerous, with around 650 workshops, most of them for the sale of food, but also 25 tanneries and fulling workshops, two clothing and one linen dealers, ten metalworking workshops, three potteries, including a small lamp factory, and some carpentry shops, (Flick) cobblers and perfume manufacturers.

Durable goods, raw materials, building materials and semi-finished metal products had to be imported from outside the city. Clay pits were needed for the manufacture of bricks or pottery such as amphorae, for example. Both the Eumachians and the Holconians are known to have mined clay. Lucius Eumachius' brickworks also supplied Boscoreale, for example, as can be seen from the stamps. Depending on the season, amphorae were produced in the summer and the pre-harvest months, and bricks the rest of the year. Further production and service companies could be occupied. A painting and a pottery workshop (figuli) - whose owner was called Zosimus -, perfumeries and a clay lamp workshop were found.

The longstanding assumption that Pompeii was a local center of the wool industry can no longer be maintained today. For much more than self-sufficiency in the city, the capacities found so far for wool processing - work surfaces, boilers for heating liquids, basins and troughs for dyeing, for example - were not sufficient. The further processing with home looms could only be proven by the finds of about 50 loom weights in a single house. This is far too little for a larger production. Occupations such as cloth fullers (fullones), dyers (tinctores) and felters (coactiliarii) are documented through graffiti. However, statements about the number can no longer be made today, since the mostly thin-walled equipment required by them can no longer be traced in many workshops due to the earlier excavation methods. It is likely that the city will supply itself with these goods. The same can be assumed for other industries such as tanneries and metalworking.

The assumption that Capua, as a regional center, supplied the other cities with tools, agricultural implements, chains, scales, weapons, bronze goods, etcetera, can now be regarded as wrong, especially in the metalworking workshops. In Pompeii, for example, workshops for forging trades were found, such as armorers or tool smiths (fabri ferrarii), coppersmiths or bronze smiths (fabri aerarii) - who were responsible for forging vases, amphorae, kettles, pans, lamps or artistic reliefs - or silver - and goldsmiths. The divisions should not be narrowly classified here, because at that time work was often "interdisciplinary" and both everyday needs and goods of the higher standard were produced. One would recognize parallels here in today's blacksmith. Some of the smiths from Pompeii are still known by name from unearthed recommendations, such as Iunianus, the ironsmith, or Verus, who made bronze works and smaller candelabra. In addition, a workshop could be proven in which statuettes and even life-size statues were cast in bronze. There were also jewelers (gemmarii) and chiselers (caelatores).

There were rows of shops on many public buildings and also on numerous large private houses. The city used this to finance projects or the homeowners had an additional income that should not be underestimated. The house of the Postumiers is an example of this interplay of living and living. There were tabernae on three sides of the building, which occupied a large area. Some of these shops had connections to the actual house. It can be assumed that slaves or freedmen worked here on behalf of the owner. Other shops had no connection to the inside of the building, but a false ceiling. The operators of the shops could have lived here with their families. There is also access to the second floor. This may also have been rented out by the owner. Some of the shops could be identified. There was a food stall and a metal workshop. The food stall may have been supplied by a large kitchen belonging to the building.

Prostitution

The only ancient Roman lupanar (brothel) in the city has been identified with certainty: a two-story building featuring five small cubicles on the upper floor and a separate street entrance. Each cubicle was equipped with a stone bed and a mattress, while the walls were adorned with erotic frescoes designed to help clients make a quick choice. Modern research has not supported earlier theories suggesting the existence of dozens of brothels in Pompeii. Many buildings were mistakenly identified as brothels simply because they contained erotic images or obscene graffiti; such drawings and inscriptions were ubiquitous throughout the city, reflecting the prevailing style of Roman street humor and sexual openness rather than indicating specialized establishments.
Nevertheless, prostitution in Pompeii certainly extended far beyond the single official *lupanar*. Sex workers—predominantly women from the eastern provinces (Greeks, Syrians, Egyptians) and former slaves—often operated independently. They rented small ground-floor rooms with direct street access (*cellæ meretriciæ*) or received clients in their apartments on the upper floors of insulae (apartment blocks), which have not survived to the present day. Many waitresses in thermopolia (snack bars) and taverns engaged in sex work as a side job, meaning some food and drink establishments effectively served a dual purpose.
Thanks to hundreds of surviving graffiti, we know the real names, prices, and even some details about the lives of these women. Prices ranged from very low to relatively high:

Athenaida — 2 asses
Sabina — 2 asses
Logas (a household slave) — 8 asses
Maritimus performs oral sex for 4 asses. Also accepts virgins. In the lowest price bracket, the service cost no more than an ordinary loaf of bread or a liter of wine (1–2 asses). More experienced or attractive women could charge up to several sestertii. These inscriptions—scratched onto the walls of houses, bathhouses, and even prestigious neighborhoods—allow us today to literally hear the voices of the ancient city and better understand the social reality of first-century AD Pompeii.

Evidence of long-distance trade and cultural exchange with Asia

Among the many traces of long-distance international trade found in Pompeii, one unique discovery stands out: an Indian ivory statuette known as the "Pompeii Lakshmi."
This elegant figurine was discovered in the ruins of one of the city's wealthy homes. It was crafted around the 1st century AD—the very era when Pompeii was buried under the ash of Vesuvius in 79 AD. Standing approximately 25 centimeters tall, the statuette likely served as the handle of a mirror. It depicts the goddess Lakshmi (or a *yakshini*—a female deity of fertility and prosperity) in a pose characteristic of Indian art: nude and voluptuous, adorned with necklaces and bracelets, and sporting an elaborate hairstyle.
This find is particularly valuable because it presents a rather unusual and sensual depiction of Lakshmi/the *yakshini*, distinct from later canonical Indian representations. It offers striking evidence that Roman trade with India and the Far East had reached its peak in the 1st century AD. Through the Red Sea and Egyptian ports, Italy received not only luxury items but also commodities such as ivory, nard (a prized aromatic oil), silk, cotton and wool fabrics, spices, and gemstones.
Today, the Pompeii Lakshmi statuette is housed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples; it stands as one of the most vivid archaeological proofs of just how globalized the Roman Empire's economy was as early as the first century AD. For the residents of Pompeii, owning such an exotic object was a mark of high status and a connection to prestigious Eastern imports.

Politics

Inscriptions (dipinti) in Latin painted in red and black have been preserved on the walls of the city. The facades of houses in other cities in the Roman world may also have had similar "graffiti", but nowhere were they as well preserved as in Pompeii. Those that can best be interpreted as political election calls are archeological sources that provide insight into the city's political mentality and everyday life. Usually the inscriptions were whitewashed over again after the re-appointment of the city council to make room for the next ballot. At the time of its demise, however, the city was in the midst of an election campaign. The candidates had to form support committees, which put up calls and recommendations on as many walls as possible in order to be noticed as such. Especially on the facades of buildings on the main traffic arteries, on public squares and shopping streets was painted. For example, neighborhood groups or entire professional associations could support someone. Thus the Pompeian fruit traders supported a certain Sallustius Capito. Surprisingly, women also campaigned intensively, although they were neither allowed nor able to be elected. One of the voting recommendations was: "Pollia requests that Marcus Cerrinius be elected". Another outright: "Choose Gaius Rufus!"

It is striking that the calls did not refer to anything like a party or election program. Election promises were also rarely found. Apparently, most of the candidates did not want to be determined. You voted more for a personality than for a political program. There were no parties as we know them today. For one of the candidates, the Pompeian Helvius Sabinus, the distribution pattern of his campaign advertising in the city could be mapped. Over 100 appeals in his favor had been painted in the city. Helvius received support from a wide variety of groups, which should be an indication of its high profile.

The advertising slogans were very different, at one point there is a mere abbreviation: "OVF" (written out: oro vos faciatis, in English "Please choose him"). Friends and drinking buddies promoted their candidates, as did “collegia”, the ancient associations. But there are also examples of bakers, innkeepers, dice players, animators as petitioners and teachers who advertised "with their students". Advertising on billboards was still unusual. In Rome, however, legal texts or white wooden panels (albae) were already attached to public places in pre-Christian times. Official notices were written on them. They were forerunners of what is now referred to as a poster.

The election procedure for the approximately 5,000 to 10,000 Pompeian men entitled to vote can be traced on coin reliefs and with contemporary text sources. They met at the forum as well as at the urban political center and voted in fenced-off areas with wax tablets. In connection with the ancient election campaigns, there is talk of patronage politics, nepotism and even open corruption. There was certainly support from well-meaning professional groups in the expectation of something in return. A lot of money was put into the election campaign back then, even Julius Caesar once had to fear personal over-indebtedness for his high election campaign costs in Rome. A Bruttius Balbius promoted this in Pompeii by “sparing the city treasury”, and thus forms an exception to the election campaign by conveying at least vague political content. It can generally be read from the finds that in antiquity advertising was not based on innovative politics, but rather on everyday problems and enduring traditions as themes. And there was also macabre anti-advertising: a Marcus Cerrinius, for whom even "the assassins would supposedly vote". At least once, something like economic competence of a candidate should be expressed in terms of content: "Bonum panem fert" (he brings good bread).

When the imperial period in January 27 B.C. By the time the Roman Senate relinquished power, elections were more or less suspended. The emperor determined more or less everything and the offices were distributed in a small circle. Local self-government only prevailed in the approximately 2,000 rural towns of the Roman Empire, and there there were lively and authentic election campaigns even in the imperial era.

By the time of the Roman Republic, political elections were commonly held in the cities to fill the local self-government, the City Council, which was modeled in some ways on the Senate in Rome. Only a small part of the city council consisting of 100 so-called decuriones was elected. The majority bought their political office with a certain amount. The process, which is questionable and undemocratic from our point of view today, was typical of antiquity, because the population was of the opinion that people who had wealth should also make decisions in politics. Elections were also held in Pompeii for two other offices - one of which was that of the duumviri, a college composed of two men. The officers exercised great influence on city politics, chaired the city council and exercised city rights. The term of office here was one year. Every five years, two special duumvirs, the duumviri quinquennales, were elected to take care of administrative tasks such as updating the lists of citizens as part of the census. The actions of these duumvirs were reviewed by the city council.

In addition, candidates for administrative posts were also elected. The so-called aediles, who were subordinate to the duumvirs, formed the top of the administration. Their tasks were, for example, road construction management, aligning games and maintaining public buildings.

All people with Roman citizenship who were over 30 years old were allowed to vote. Women, slaves and foreigners were not allowed to participate.

Private homes

Living in pre-Roman Pompeii
Much of the city's homes were simple living quarters, often with an attached workshop or shop. However, Pompeii has its outstanding reputation mainly because of its luxurious houses of the upper class. Many of these palatial complexes were already laid out in Samnite times and were far ahead of the Roman buildings of that time. Some buildings, such as the House of the Faun, had a floor area of 3000 m² and a second floor above it. Thus, these houses could even compete with the palaces of the Hellenistic rulers in the eastern Mediterranean. Only with the Roman expansion in the 2nd century BC. This living luxury came to the Roman capital.

A sign of the houses of this time was that attempts were made to build a peristyle or at least a portico even in smaller properties. The construction of the buildings was quite austere. For example, an attempt was made to arrange the doors of the rooms adjacent to the atrium symmetrically and at equal intervals. Many doors meant the house was large and its owner wealthy. For this reason, false doors were often painted on the walls in smaller buildings. Individual components such as certain masonry techniques were adopted from magnificent public buildings. In addition to the paintings, the walls were elaborately stuccoed. Researchers call this type of wall decoration the First Pompeian style.

Unlike the larger buildings, the simple houses saw little development. Many of them were designed as terraced houses. Small, open courtyards were normal, but atria were absent. The courtyard was probably used for little more than growing a few vegetables and keeping small domestic animals such as chickens or possibly a pig or a sheep. The finds for the simple houses are still inadequate and partly because of the lack of interest on the part of archaeologists and the negligent excavations of earlier times.

Living in republican Pompeii

After the Roman veterans and their families were settled in Pompeii, there was almost certainly massive upheaval in the city. One of the questions that is often asked when exploring the city is whether this can be proven on the basis of the archaeological findings.

Parallel to the new settlers, a new form of wall decoration, the second Pompeian style, also made its appearance: the sculptural stucco work of the first style was abandoned in favor of large-scale frescoes. Nevertheless, the goal of creating an architecturally as plastic, elaborately structured wall as possible remained. Walls were divided into three: in front there was a protruding pillar, in the middle half-height shear walls, and third, framed vistas that were illusionistic and naturalistic at the same time. For example, sanctuary precincts or simply beautiful, fantastic landscapes were depicted. An important stylistic device was the work with optical illusions and foreshortening, which only worked because the dimensions and proportions of the first style were retained.

The demolition of the city wall freed up space in the south-west and west, and the location on the steep slope made it possible to build terraced houses. On the sea side, porticoes or large salons were built with large windows offering fantastic views of the gulf, island and mountains.

Within the city, the construction of larger building complexes was more difficult, since several adjacent plots had to be bought. When this happened, mostly new living quarters and peristyle were built on the new land. The most impressive example of a building that has grown in this way is the Labyrinth House. To the south was the old atrium building, in the middle was the garden wing, and far from the entrance to the north was an area of newly built salons. Accordingly, guests had to go through the entire house and should certainly be impressed by the richness of the furnishings and the associated wealth of the master of the house.

In many houses, smaller and larger conversions can be made in the course of the 1st century BC. prove. However, it has not been researched to what extent this also applies to the residents of smaller properties because, as is so often the case, there are insufficient findings.

Living in imperial Pompeii

Although no real new construction of a large house is known from the imperial period, it is still the houses from the imperial period that shape the idea of living in Pompeii. Most striking is the attempt by the owners to accommodate modern, innovative elements alongside the remains of the older architecture and decoration. One often finds the interplay of small vestibules and extensive gardens and frescoes in bright colors next to old architectural elements.

A recognizable innovation in the early imperial period was, for example, the upgrading of the atrium. However, this was not uniformly renovated, but special emphasis was placed on the eye-catcher (the impluvium). The floors and edging of the rainwater tanks were often renewed, and water features were also built, in which water fountains shot into a collecting basin, preferably from openings in figures (mouths, beaks). These water features were set up in such a way that they acted as eye-catchers for visitors. Behind it there was often a marble table - in simpler houses a brick, stuccoed table. Its function is not entirely clear, certain valuables may have been presented on it. The atrium was often also transformed into a garden landscape. All of this was an important process, because it required major modifications, pressure lines had to be laid to supply the water features, and permission had to be obtained from the aedile. During this time, the dining rooms were designed to be more spacious and, if possible, with a view of the peristyle.

There was also a renewal in the wall painting. The third Pompeian style differed greatly from the first and second. Basically, everything became more symmetrical. The pictorial elements were now framed in one color and structured by a miniaturized stud frame. The walls were always divided into three, with the central part, which was the focal point, often depicting landscapes with sanctuary scenes, but increasingly also mythological scenes. Dionysian themes and erotic depictions were particularly popular.

A trend towards symmetrical geometry was also discernible in the planting in the garden wing. New research has shown that mainly low flowers and shrubs as well as hedges trimmed like a border were planted. Even the planting of fruit trees followed predetermined patterns that suggest that show garden effects were to be achieved here. There were no paths that invited you to walk; the gardens should only be viewed from the outside. Smaller, below-life-size statuettes and herms were intended to convey an enraptured impression.

This abundance of elements compressed into a small space was also the main feature of the paintings of the Fourth Pompeian style. The painting appears dainty, often fragile, and mostly erotic, mythical scenes are depicted. The figures are depicted in current fashion, so it can be assumed that the homeowners have indirectly allowed themselves to be portrayed.

See List of Buildings in Pompeii for more detailed descriptions of various houses.

Necropolis

In front of almost all city gates there were larger and smaller necropolises that every newcomer had to cross. The largest of these systems were in front of the Noceraner and especially the Herculaner Tor. The more important the buried were, the closer the grave was to the city. The city council reserved the right to award graves of honor in an area about 30 meters from the city.

The places in front of the Herculaner Tor must have been particularly popular. The buildings here were very close together. The tombs were not only a place of remembrance and a status symbol, but also a place of political and social propaganda. There are various conspicuous, sometimes very idiosyncratic grave structures - often from respected families in the city - which were still fighting for attention with the dead members of the family.

To make room for new buildings, old tombs were often demolished, which is why older buildings are hard to find today. However, there are a few examples that also testify to the care taken of the graves of old, honored city dignitaries. A large cubic tomb was found where Marcus Porcius, one of the first notables of the newly founded colony, was buried. This grave was maintained more than a hundred years after his death, although no descendants are known of him.

Next to this old tomb, two new structures were built at the beginning of the imperial period, the tombs for Aulus Veius and the Venus priestess Mamia. Both were built in the form of semi-circular benches facing the sea and inviting people to linger and talk. In order to be closer to the city wall, some builders even refrained from digging their graves on the street and moved to the second row. Directly behind the tombs already mentioned was the two-story monument of the Istacidians. In front of the Noceran Gate, the Eumachiers also erected a particularly large building, which, however, was wide and not tall. The building served as a mausoleum for members of the family for several generations.

In the post-Augustan period, however, this competition seems to have come to an end. The grave precincts were now more of a uniform construction. They were delimited with low walls and corner towers. In the middle was a plinth for the urns. These burial areas were only entered by relatives on certain occasions. The most important thing now was the grave altar, which was elaborately designed with precious marble. The inscriptions that praised the merits and piety (Pietas) of the deceased were also found here. In the Republican and Augustan times there were mainly graves of the notables of the city, later there are also graves of freedmen.

Apparently, tombs were often misused as latrine. We know from Trimalchio's banquet that he even wanted to post a guard at his grave to prevent this. An inscription from a tomb in front of the walls of Pompeii also provides eloquent testimony to this:

"Stranger, the bones beg you not to pee on this burial mound
and, if you want to please this one even more, don't poop!
You can see Nettle's grave here. Go away, poop!
It's not safe for you to open your butt here."

Restaurants

Pompeii was a bustling metropolis — one of the largest and most vibrant cities in the Roman province of Campania at the time. With a population estimated between 10,000 and 20,000, it featured dense urban neighborhoods, grand public buildings, markets, baths, and an amphitheater.
Daily life varied sharply by social class. Wealthy families enjoyed spacious domus (private houses) with private kitchens, atriums, and gardens. In contrast, poorer residents, laborers, freedmen, and renters often lived in cramped apartments within multi-story insulae (apartment blocks) or small rented rooms. These modest dwellings typically lacked proper kitchens due to space constraints and, more importantly, the ever-present danger of fire.
Fires were a constant threat in ancient Roman cities. Dense wooden construction and open flames made cooking indoors risky, especially in buildings packed with people. Landlords often prohibited tenants from cooking or frying at home to protect their property from accidental blazes. As a result, many ordinary citizens relied entirely on eating out for their meals.
The enterprising Romans responded with a thriving street-food culture. Across Pompeii, numerous thermopolia (from the Greek for “place where hot things are sold”) functioned as ancient fast-food outlets or taverns. Archaeologists have identified at least 89 such establishments in the excavated areas of the city — often strategically located near baths, the forum, or busy streets.
These thermopolia featured a distinctive design: a wide opening to the street and a masonry counter with large embedded terracotta jars called dolia. These jars kept pre-cooked dishes warm throughout the day — stews, soups, lentils, vegetables, sausages, salted fish, baked cheeses, and more. Wine, sometimes mixed with additives like fava beans for flavor and color, was also served. Customers typically stood or ate quickly at the counter rather than sitting down for a formal meal.
Many thermopolia were beautifully decorated with colorful frescoes depicting food items, animals, or mythological scenes — serving as both advertising and artistic enhancement. Some included small shrines to protective gods like Mercury (commerce) and the Lares (household deities). A few even offered upstairs rooms, functioning partly as simple inns.
When a customer approached, the proprietor would serve portions from the hot jars onto plates or bowls at the tavola calda (hot table/counter). This system allowed busy Pompeians to grab affordable, ready-to-eat meals without the hassle or risk of cooking at home.
Visiting the preserved thermopolia today offers a vivid glimpse into everyday Roman life — a reminder that the concept of “fast food” is far from modern. These lively eateries highlight the practical ingenuity of Roman urban society and make Pompeii’s streets feel remarkably alive even centuries later. Perfect stops for travelers imagining what it was like to grab a quick lunch amid the hustle of an ancient Mediterranean city.

Pompeian paintings

In more detail you can get acquainted if you pass to the detailed description of these or those buildings.

Before the discovery of Pompeii, information about Roman painting was scarce and fragmented, and rare examples were limited to fragments of frescoes found in isolated cases. However, the discovery of the city with its rich, picturesque heritage made it possible to begin a new discussion on the whole question of Roman art. Based on the research and classification made by Vitruvio, the paintings are usually divided into 4 styles:
1 style: known as "inlay" or "structural" style. This was a common occurrence between the 2nd century and the middle of the 1st century BC. This is a simple and modest painting style: thanks to the use of plaster and colors, which are dominated by black, yellow and red, it tends to imitate marble panels.
2 style: it existed until the middle of I century AD. It is known as perspective architecture or simply architectural because, in addition to artificial marble facings, it reproduces colonnades, arches and buildings that are visible in perspective. The result is an imaginary space with increasing or decreasing effects. The great cycle of the Mysteries in the eponymous villa belongs to this period. At its most advanced stage, glimpses of the countryside are drawn between imaginary buildings.
3 style: called "real painting" and refers to the I century AD. He sees a return to a simpler style. The background becomes flat and displayed in one color: the figures are decorated, and the decorative elements are underlined. Painting III style is also known as "Egyptian", as the ornament often resembles the ancient Egyptian motifs.
4 style: known as “architectural illusionism” or “ornamental”. Its characteristics resemble a picture of the second period, but the composition is becoming increasingly exaggerated and unreal. It was an attempt to expand the walls by creating imaginary spaces.

Mosaic

Pompeian Mosaic Ornamentation: From Humble Beginnings to Masterpieces of Ancient Art
Mosaic was one of the most popular and enduring forms of decorative art in Ancient Rome. In Pompeii, it was widely used to adorn private homes, public buildings, and villas over the course of several centuries. Mosaic floors and panels underwent a significant evolution—moving from the simple, utilitarian works of the early period to the complex, highly artistic compositions of later eras.

Early Mosaics (2nd–1st centuries BC)
The earliest examples were crafted from rough, irregular tesserae (small cubes) made of modest materials—primarily local stone and simple ceramics. The ornamentation was understated, dominated by repetitive geometric motifs such as meanders, squares, diamonds, triangles, and checkerboard patterns. While these mosaics had a modest appearance, they were durable and practical.

The Golden Age of the Art Form (1st century BC – 79 AD)
In subsequent periods—particularly during the era of the Second, Third, and Fourth Pompeian Styles—mosaic art flourished. Craftsmen began using smaller, more refined *tesserae* made of colored marble, glass, semi-precious stones, and even gold. Complex, multicolored compositions emerged, featuring rich palettes, subtle tonal gradations, and exquisite artistic sensibility. Mosaics from this period often reproduced famous Greek paintings or depicted original scenes.
Mosaic panels and floors served primarily as flooring; this was both practical (offering protection against dampness and wear) and a mark of prestige. Wealthy Pompeian households vied with one another in the opulence of their décor.

Most Famous Examples
"Cave Canem" ("Beware of the Dog")
The most recognizable and ubiquitous motif. A mosaic depicting a black guard dog in an aggressive stance, accompanied by the inscription CAVE CANEM ("Beware of the Dog"), was often placed at the entrance to many homes. It served both as a warning to visitors and a display of the owner's status. In some houses, the menacing dog was replaced by a friendlier Latin inscription: SALVE ("Hello" or "Welcome"). These small entrance mosaics have been remarkably well preserved and still bring a smile to tourists' faces today.
The "Alexander Mosaic" (or "Battle of Alexander")
A true masterpiece of ancient mosaic art, this work was discovered in the House of the Faun—one of the largest and most luxurious residences in Pompeii. The massive panel (measuring approximately 5.8 by 3.1 meters and composed of over 1.5 million tesserae) depicts the decisive moment of the Battle of Issus (333 BC) between Alexander the Great and the Persian King Darius III. The composition is striking for its dynamism, expressive faces, and vivid portrayal of movement and emotion. The craftsmanship is particularly impressive in the rendering of armor, horses, and the look of despair on Darius's face. The mosaic is currently on display at the National Archaeological Museum of Naples. It is believed to be a copy of a lost Greek painting by either Philoxenus or Heliodorus. It stands as one of the most significant and magnificent surviving examples of ancient mosaic art.

Beyond these famous pieces, hundreds of other mosaics have survived in Pompeii, featuring images of sea deities, dolphins, birds, fruit, theatrical masks, hunting scenes, and mythological subjects. Many remain in situ—in their original locations within the houses—allowing modern visitors to literally walk across history.

Sculpture

The surviving sculptures of Pompeii clearly demonstrate the ancient residents' preference for small-scale statues. Such works were created primarily for decorative purposes—to adorn the interiors of private homes, gardens, fountains, atriums, and *tablinia* (formal reception rooms). They blended seamlessly into the space, creating an atmosphere of comfort, luxury, and harmony with the surrounding nature.
In contrast, large monumental statues—which served commemorative and propagandistic functions—were mainly situated in the Forum, the city's central square, where public gatherings, religious ceremonies, and political events took place.

Materials and Craftsmanship
Bronze was the preferred material for Pompeian sculptors, as it allowed for the rendering of intricate details, dynamic movement, and naturalistic poses. However, many authentic masterpieces made from other materials—such as marble, tuff, and terracotta—have also survived. These small statuettes impress with the freshness of their conception, the spontaneity of their execution, and their high level of artistic skill.
Among the most famous examples are:
"The Dancing Faun" (a bronze statue from the House of the Faun)—an energetic, high-spirited woodland spirit with small horns and a wild expression, captured in the midst of a dance. This sculpture became the symbol of the house and gave it its name; it embodies the joy of life and a festive spirit.
"The Drunken Silenus"—an expressive figure of the mythical companion of Dionysus, depicting a comic scene involving a donkey (a motif known from mosaics and sculptures in wealthy homes).
"Wild Boar Under Attack" (or a group featuring a boar, dogs, and other animals)—a dynamic composition incorporating fountain elements, popular in the peristyles of wealthy villas and homes. Such groups created the illusion of living nature and flowing water. The *Doryphoros* (Spear-Bearer)—a magnificent Roman marble copy of the famous Greek bronze statue by Polykleitos (5th century BC)—deserves special attention. This sculpture embodies the classical canon of ideal human body proportions and served as a model for generations of artists.
In addition to complete works, archaeologists have discovered numerous statue fragments—primarily in the Forum area and in temples dedicated to the Capitoline Triad (Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva). These finds attest to the opulence of public sanctuaries and the vital role sculpture played in the city's religious life.

The Polychromy of Roman Statues
An important detail often overlooked is that, unlike modern snow-white copies and reconstructions, the Romans brightly painted their statues. Faces, hair, garments, and attributes were adorned with rich colors—red, blue, gold, and green. Over time, the pigments wore away due to the effects of ash, moisture, and the passage of time, leaving us today with predominantly monochrome marble and bronze. Consequently, our perception of Roman sculpture—and the imitations of classical culture in later eras—has been somewhat inaccurate and "colder" than the reality of the 1st century AD.
When visiting Pompeii, be sure to take note of these details; they offer valuable insight into the daily lives and aesthetic preferences of the ancient Romans. Many of the original sculptures are now housed in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples, where they can be viewed in their original (or reconstructed) state.

Graffiti

Around 10,000 wall inscriptions, known today as graffiti and dipino, were uncovered in Pompeii. They still represent a common form of everyday communication. Early scratches were already found in large numbers in ancient Egypt. This does not mean the richly decorated wall paintings in the temples and tombs, but according to the definition private scratched inscriptions found on temples, in tombs, on rocks and statues. The Romans rarely used charcoal or chalk to make them. A stylus, a pointed stylus used to write on wax tablets, was usually used. The blackboards were in everyday use to be able to write something down quickly. The metal pen penetrated into any plaster without any problems. In order to discover the fine scratches, you usually have to look very closely. This means that they have a completely different look and feel than today's graffiti, which is often unmistakably colorful and large. This is probably why they were mostly judged relatively generously and they were at least tolerated. Entire gladiator graffiti was even found carved into temple pillars or the walls of amphitheaters. These carvings were even colored, which suggests that they were made without fear of being discovered.

It was found that the number of carvings was primarily related to sexuality and eroticism – in very different forms, from obscene to almost elegiacly romantic. The gladiator fights came second. Because there were many fans who used such line drawings to keep records at the same time, for example how many victories their favorite fighter had won. Depictions of a defeated man lying on the ground were also scratched on the walls, and this too was sometimes counted with dashes. There was also a large group with inscriptions on people. It is often everyday things that have been scratched relatively small into the walls, such as food prices. The walls were told that one's slave had run away, or that a donkey had been born, that an actor who was particularly impressive had been in town, and wished that he would come back soon. Although the incised drawings were widespread, they did not play a major role in antiquity and usually had no artistic claim, but today they offer good information on many issues. Large amounts of carvings and scribblings were added by tourism.

Documentation and reception

Especially in the early days of documentation and cartography, the creations from these areas were to be regarded as independent works of art, which is why they are viewed from the point of view of reception.

Later scholarly studies often criticize the documentation of Pompeii’s excavations prior to the era of Giuseppe Fiorelli, claiming it lacked scientific rigor and systematic method. However, this is only a half-truth. While the early recording of finds was indeed inconsistent, much of the work was executed to a high visual and artistic standard, featuring precise scale drawings, detailed sketches, and engravings.
The main challenge today is that these valuable early materials are scattered across archives and rare publications that are extremely difficult for even specialists to access.

Early documentation methods (18th–19th centuries)
As early as the 1760s, archaeologists were not only meticulously copying frescoes but also documenting entire walls and architectural elements to precise scale. Unfortunately, a significant portion of this high-quality work remained unpublished. A prime example is the set of detailed engravings of the Villa of Diomedes, which never saw print.
From the 1920s onwards, professional draftsmen worked continuously at the excavation sites. Their work has become particularly valuable in modern times, as many original finds—especially wall paintings—have suffered from alterations, distortions during restoration, or total loss over the decades. Thanks to these historical records, modern scholars can reconstruct the authentic appearance of Pompeii.
A true treasure among the ruins—and one that remains significant today—is the cork model of the city, begun in 1806 at a scale of 1:48. It reproduces masonry techniques, wall decorations, architectural details, and the city layout with exceptional accuracy. This model serves as a vital three-dimensional resource for researchers and helps visitors better visualize the ancient city. The Shift to Scientific Documentation
A major breakthrough occurred thanks to Giuseppe Fiorelli. It was under his leadership that the systematic practice of keeping excavation diaries was introduced, and the regular publication of the first scholarly journal, *Giornale degli Scavi di Pompei* ("Pompeii Excavation Journal"), began between 1868 and 1879. This transformed documentation into a truly scientific, detailed, and accessible resource for study.
Fiorelli was also the first to make extensive use of a then-novel tool—photography—to document the excavation process, the finds, and their context. This revolutionized archaeology and enabled the preservation of visual information with unprecedented accuracy.

The Pompeian Court in London
An interesting episode in the history of popularizing Pompeii is the "Pompeian Court," created at the Crystal Palace in London. Built in the mid-19th century, this reconstruction represented an idealized and romanticized version of Pompeian architecture rather than an accurate scientific recreation. Nevertheless, it played a vital role in drawing public attention to the ancient city and stimulating further research.
Today, when visiting Pompeii, you can appreciate the meticulous care with which modern science has restored and preserved this heritage, thanks to the efforts of generations of archaeologists. Early records and models help correct past errors and bring us closer to an authentic picture of life in the city prior to the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD.

Cartography

The archaeological mapping of Pompeii represented a completely new field of study in the 18th and 19th centuries. Even today, old maps and plans remain valuable tools for archaeologists: they help reconstruct destroyed structures, pinpoint the location of finds, and correct errors or falsifications from earlier excavations.
The first plan of Pompeii was created by Francesco La Vega (1737–1815), the director of archaeological work at the site from 1780 to 1804. His map, covering excavations from approximately 1755 to 1812, was far from perfect in its depiction of the city's overall topography and layout, yet it recorded specific details of buildings and streets with remarkable accuracy. These detailed sketches remain highly prized by specialists today.
A similar situation applied to the city map prepared by Francesco Piranesi. For a long time, it was virtually the only map of Pompeii available for general sale and was widely used by travelers and scholars. Released in three different versions between 1785 and 1793, it combined artistic flair with an attempt to document the areas excavated up to that time.
Geodetically more accurate plans were produced in the 1820s, but they were never published and remained internal documents. Nevertheless, these works served as the basis—or template—for numerous subsequent city maps, most of which were published at a scale of 1:3000. Such plans typically accompanied descriptive literature on Pompeii and helped readers navigate the ancient city.
A true breakthrough occurred in 1885. At the initiative and request of the eminent archaeologist Giuseppe Fiorelli, the engineer Giacomo (Gerolamo) Tascone produced a new, highly accurate 1:1000 scale plan of Pompeii. This work was foundational; its principles remain relevant to this day and served as the basis for most subsequent maps and plans of the city. Fiorelli, who conducted systematic excavations and reforms in Pompeii, understood the critical importance of accurate documentation.
Another significant 1:1000 scale plan—the *Corpus Topographicum Pompeianum*—was created using photogrammetric surveying. This multi-volume reference work, comprising updated plans, indices, a bibliography, and toponymic data, was intended to facilitate in-depth scholarly study of Pompeii. Unfortunately, it was never fully published; to this day, only select parts and volumes are available.

Architecture

Full-scale architectural models and exact replicas of Pompeian houses were rarely created in later eras. A notable exception is the Pompejanum in Aschaffenburg, Germany. It is an idealized reconstruction of a Roman villa, built between 1840 and 1848 by the architect Friedrich von Gärtner, commissioned by King Ludwig I of Bavaria. Situated on the high bank of the Main River, the building largely replicates the House of the Dioscuri (Casa dei Dioscuri) in Pompeii—one of the ancient city's most impressive residential complexes. The Pompejanum combines authentic proportions, peristyles, atriums, and decorative elements to evoke the atmosphere of a genuine Roman home. Today, it is open to visitors and stands as a striking example of the 19th-century Neoclassical fascination with antiquity.
Individual architectural elements from Pompeian structures were sometimes incorporated into other projects as well. For instance, Pompeian motifs were used in the construction of Prince Napoleon’s palace (the Maison pompéienne or Palais pompéien) on Avenue Montaigne in Paris. Built between 1856 and 1860 in a style inspired by the Villa of Diomedes near Pompeii, this luxurious mansion was a true Gesamtkunstwerk (total work of art) embodying the Neo-Greek and Pompeian spirit. Unfortunately, the palace has not survived to the present day.
Attempts to recreate an entire Pompeian house in Naples itself, following authentic traditions, repeatedly failed. Among the options considered were the House of Pansa (Casa di Pansa) and the famous House of the Faun (Casa del Fauno)—one of Pompeii’s largest and most opulent residences, renowned for the Alexander Mosaic. These projects never progressed beyond the planning stage. Decorative elements—such as frescoes, ornaments, mosaics, and objets d'art—were reproduced far more frequently. At times, they were adapted and modified to suit the tastes of the era. Furnishing and decorating interiors in the Pompeian style marked the first step toward integrating classical motifs into everyday living spaces. The trend for "Pompeian rooms"—featuring characteristic wall paintings, couches, and lamps—gained significant momentum during the late 18th and 19th centuries and remained popular in elite interiors.
An interesting 20th-century example is the Getty Villa in Pacific Palisades (a neighborhood of Los Angeles, California). Built in the mid-1970s (opened in 1974, renovated and reopened in 2006) as part of the J. Paul Getty Museum, it primarily replicates the Villa of the Papyri (Villa dei Papiri) in Herculaneum. Architects adopted the peristyle’s proportions, gardens, reflecting pools, and layout, while also incorporating architectural details from other ancient structures in Pompeii and Stabiae. The Getty Villa not only replicates classical forms but also functions as a museum housing thousands of authentic Greco-Roman artifacts. It stands as one of the most ambitious and accurate modern "Pompeian-style" projects.

Visual arts

A problem for the presentation in the Bourbon period were the restrictive regulations. Not only were the visits regulated, but the ban on drawing in the ruins for guests prevented further representations. Pietro Fabris contributed drawings for British Ambassador William Hamilton's travelogue. Giovanni Battista Piranesi created plans and views of the city shortly before his death in 1778, which were only published by his son Francesco in 1804. Towards the end of the 18th century, small series of colored vedute based on models by Louis Jean Desprez and Philipp Hackert were created, which were sold to visitors to the excavation site.

François Mazois worked for several years on a monumental depiction of Pompeii, which primarily took into account the architecture and was published in four volumes by 1838. In the second half of the 19th century, the first photo series - such as those by Brogi and Alinari - came onto the market. Over time, the depiction changed more and more from the picturesque depiction of individual finds to the documentation and partial reconstruction of the ancient world. Above all, the eleven-volume series Pompei stands out here. Pitture e Mosaici and the German project Houses in Pompeii, which lavishly illustrate the parts of the city that have already been excavated.

Apart from a few early exceptions, Pompeii only became a subject for painting in the course of the 19th century. Of particular impact was the painting The Last Day of Pompeii (1827-1833) by the Russian Karl Pavlovich Bryullov, which after its completion was exhibited with great success in several European cities. Bryullow's painting, which is designed as a family drama, impresses not only with its intense depiction, but also with the detailed and accurate depiction of the archaeological findings. The influence of the picture was so great that it was even a model for later magic lanterns. The Bulwer-Lytton novel (see below) was also inspired by the painting.

Later painters, according to Théodore Chassériau, located historical genre scenes in the backdrops of the city. The emerging photography was also dedicated to Pompeii, both in a documentary (see above) and in an artistic way. Lawrence Alma-Tadema, for example, supplemented his own sketches with photographs. Historical costume scenes were also re-enacted in the city.

The last day of Pompeii. Karl Brullov

Literature

The excavations in Pompeii found their expression in the literature only with some delay. One of the first to take up the subject was Friedrich Schiller in 1796 with his Elegy Pompeii and Herculaneum. Here, as with Johann Isaak von Gerning (with the Ode Pompeii, 1802) and Johann Jakob Jägle (with the Elegy Pompeii, 1797), the excavations in Pompeii (and also in Herculaneum) were a symbol of the revival of Graeco-Roman antiquity. Jägle was also the first to interpret the city's resurrection in a Christian-religious sense of resurrection. Most of the works of this period relating to Pompeii were inspired by the author's visit, including poems by Friederike Brun, Gustav von Ingenheim, Giacomo Leopardi and Wilhelm Waiblinger.

The impressions of the visitors were often different than expected, and the ruins could not stand up to the idea of a high classic. In his book Italian Journey, Goethe mentions the "strange, half-unpleasant impression of this mummified city" that he visited in March 1787. He was particularly struck by the "narrowness and smallness" of streets and houses, "more models and doll's closets than buildings", but whose "cheerily painted" walls indicated "an entire people's love of art and pictures". Above all, the windowless buildings and the paintings, which often appear obscene to visitors, ensured that something wicked attached to Pompeii over time. The erroneous assumption that the name Colonia Cornelia Veneria Pompeianorum, given by Sulla, suggested that Pompeii was a city of the goddess Venus, did the rest. So it is not surprising that Karl Ludwig Nicolai was the first to use Pompeii as a backdrop for wicked goings-on in his epistolary novel Das Grab am Vesuvius (1816).

Over time, four main themes emerged in the literature:
Pompeii as a place of historical reflection;
Pompeii as the city of Venus;
Pompeii as a Christian resurrection motif;
Pompeii as a contrast between high art and normal everyday life.

Edward Bulwer-Lytton's work The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) established the genre of the historical-archaeological novel. He was inspired by the painting by Bryullov. Shortly after its publication, the work was translated into several languages and developed into an influential bestseller that set the style for all similar novels. The success can be explained by the combination of secured archaeological knowledge, the very detailed reconstruction of the remains and, last but not least, elements of the Gothic novel. The constructed conflict between the long-established priesthood and a Christian community - which has not been proven to this day - which culminated in the fall of the sinful city and the salvation of the Christians, was described by many authors, such as Woldemar Kaden (In der Morgenrote, 1882) and Gustav Adolf Müller (The Dying Pompeii, 1910). More rarely, as in Thomas Gray's novel The Vestal or a Tale of Pompeii (1830), Pompeii also became a tomb for Christians. The plaster casts of the suffering and dying Pompeiians made since Fiorelli could only reinforce the impression of the criminal court. This Christian view of the immoral city was particularly evident in children's and youth literature. Books like Eduard Alberti's Marcus Charinus, the young Christian in Pompeii only described the conflict between good Christians and immoral heathens.

In the literature of the 20th century, Pompeii was no longer a topic that often. On the one hand, many people were able to get to know the city themselves through the emerging mass tourism, on the other hand, the novels had meanwhile sunk into moralizing clichés and could no longer reach a large audience. Only towards the end of the century did Pompeii become a more frequent setting again, thanks to a flourishing of the historical novel. Philipp Vandenberg's Der Pompejaner (1986) and Pompeii by the British author Robert Harris (2003) are particularly well known.

Music

On November 19, 1825, the prestigious Teatro San Carlo in Naples hosted the premiere of the first opera dedicated to Pompeii and the tragic eruption of Vesuvius: Giovanni Pacini’s L’ultimo giorno di Pompei (The Last Day of Pompeii). The concept originated with architect and set designer Antonio Niccolini, while the libretto was written by Andrea Leone Tottola.
The production featured lavish sets meticulously inspired by archaeological excavations in Pompeii and Herculaneum, as well as the scientific publications of the era. Audiences felt as though they had been transported to the streets of the ancient city on the eve of the catastrophe. The opera was a resounding success with both the public and critics, enjoying numerous stagings in Italy and abroad. Moreover, it served as a key source of inspiration for Karl Bryullov’s famous painting The Last Day of Pompeii (1830–1833).
In 1858, another notable opera on the same subject appeared: Jone, o L’ultimo giorno di Pompei (Jone, or The Last Day of Pompeii) by composer Errico Petrella. Although Petrella is considered a largely forgotten figure today, this work marked one of his few genuine triumphs. The plot was based on a 19th-century bestseller—the historical novel The Last Days of Pompeii (1834) by the English writer Edward Bulwer-Lytton. Thanks to its dramatic music and spectacular scenes, the opera was performed regularly well into the early 20th century.
A particularly striking example of the intersection between modern pop culture and ancient ruins was the Pink Floyd concert held on October 4, 1971. The legendary British rock band performed in the Pompeii Amphitheatre (Anfiteatro di Pompei) without an audience. The concert took place amidst majestic open-air ruins, with the audio and video recorded specifically for the music documentary *Live at Pompeii*. Atmospheric shots featuring the ruins in the background, powerful psychedelic music, and the absence of an audience created a unique, almost otherworldly spectacle that became a classic of rock cinema.
The ancient city also caught the attention of German singer Herbert Grönemeyer. In 1979, he dedicated a song to Pompeii on his debut album, capturing the romantic yet tragic image of the city that perished beneath the ash.

Movie

Very soon after its invention, the new medium of film also turned to the subject of Pompeii. The first filming was done in Pompeii as early as 1898, when a dance performance was filmed on the forum (Neapolitan Dance at the Ancient Forum of Pompeii). Another recording was made in 1900, when the British Robert W. Paul realized a first version of the sinking of Pompeii (The Last Days of Pompeii). Further film adaptations - often based on Bulwer-Lytton's novel The Last Days of Pompeii - followed in 1906, 1908, 1913, 1935, directed by the animation specialists Ernest B. Schoedsack and Merian C. Cooper, 1950 and 1962. Particularly popular The film adaptation by Mario Bonnard and Sergio Leone with Steve Reeves, Christine Kaufmann and Fernando Rey from the year 1959 as well as the US television mini-series of the station ABC by director Peter R. Hunt from the year 1984. Here Bulwer- Lytton's novel rendered in detail with a great cast of stars. In many cases, however, Pompeii served only as a well-known shell for any plot that had nothing to do with Pompeii or the literary models. For example, the film Warrior Queen (1987) from the workshop of trash filmmaker Joe D'Amato was set in Pompeii, but it is in no way found there. The same is true of a number of comedies set in Pompeii. The British Up film series, in particular, repeatedly used the incorrectly rendered setting of Pompeii as a literally familiar background for its rustic humour. The Polish filmmaker Roman Polański planned to film the bestseller by Robert Harris, but this film project was not implemented due to cost reasons. In 2014, the topic was taken up again in the disaster film Pompeii.

Meaning, present and future

In recent years, many assumptions about Pompeii have been proven wrong by recent research. So the often spread statement that Pompeii is a representative Roman city that was "sealed" in the middle of life is not tenable. Already since Roman times, archaeological excavations have altered archaeological finds and removed finds. This has contributed to the falsification of the findings, as has the distribution of the overburden from the excavations of the first hundred years in the surrounding area or even in the previously excavated houses. Since initially only representative pieces were sought, finds are found in places to which they do not originally belong. The inhabitants of Pompeii were not suddenly surprised by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. The outbreak had been announced for days, and many Pompeians had left the city with their families and belongings. After all, the city was not yet rebuilt after the earthquake of AD 62. Atypical finds, such as living quarters used as storage rooms, half-finished reconstructed buildings or ruins, bear witness to this condition.

The now 44-hectare excavated urban area is the largest known continuous urban ruins in the world. It poses seemingly unsolvable problems for today's archaeologists. Many of the buildings are in poor condition, some of them dilapidated. The ruins can only be saved with international cooperation. The Italian state reacted to this and granted the administration of Pompeii great autonomy and financial autonomy. Pompeii has been on the UNESCO World Heritage List since 1997. The current most important task for archaeologists, building researchers, monument conservators and restorers is to stop the city's decay and still allow public access to the city. Despite many efforts, this can only be achieved to a limited extent, and large parts of the city are closed to the public.

Among other things, due to drastic cuts in the culture budget, the decline is increasing rapidly. In the early hours of November 6, 2010, the Schola Armaturarum collapsed after rainfall and despite prior warnings from local archaeologists. The building (III.3.6) on Via dell'Abbondanza, which had already been damaged in World War II, was completely destroyed. Further collapses occurred in the Casa di Trebio Valente on the same day and in the Casa del Moralista on November 30, 2010. The state of Pompeii is increasingly being discussed in the Italian public as a symbol of a failed cultural policy. A wall was also damaged after heavy rains in October 2011. In 2011, the European Union provided 105 million euros for urgent restoration work in Pompeii.[68] About two million people visit the city every year; the Pompeii tourists are an important economic factor in the region.

In connection with the neighboring city of Herculaneum, the name Pompeii became well known and initially became a synonym for the catastrophe of the year 79. However, the synonym Pompeii is later also used in the media for very different types of catastrophes and events. In addition, the city name Pompeii is used as a metaphor in connection with traditional or modern archeology.

Pompeii conservation

The objects of Pompeii, buried underground, have been well preserved for nearly 2,000 years. The lack of air and moisture allowed objects to remain underground with virtually no damage. After the excavations, the site provided a variety of source materials and evidence for analysis, detailing the life of Pompeians. However, after exposure, Pompeii is exposed to both natural and man-made forces, which are quickly aggravated. For example, during the war, American planes bombed the ancient city.

Weathering, erosion, exposure to light, water damage, poor excavation and reconstruction methods, introduced plants and animals, tourism, vandalism and theft - all of this somehow damaged the object. Two thirds of the city was excavated, but the remains of the city are deteriorating rapidly.

Concern for the preservation of constantly troubled archaeologists. The ancient city was incorporated in 1996 by the World Monuments Observation World Monuments Fund, and again in 1998 and 2000. In 1996, the organization declared that Pompeii "is in desperate need of repair," and called for a general plan for restoration and interpretation. The organization supported the preservation in Pompeii with the financial support of American Express and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation.

Today financing is mainly aimed at preserving Pompeii; however, due to the magnitude of Pompeii and the magnitude of the problems, this is not enough to stop the slow decay of materials. An estimated $ 335 million is needed for all the work needed on Pompeii. A recent study recommended an improved strategy for interpreting and presenting an object as a cost-effective method for improving its conservation and preservation in the short term.

In June 2013, UNESCO stated: “If restoration and conservation work does not bring significant progress over the next two years,” Pompeii may be included on the List of World Heritage in Danger.

Tourism

Information about Pompeii
PompeiIn info@pompeiin.com +39 3284134719 offers several itineraries in ancient Pompeii lasting from 1 hour to 6 hours. The guides are local, licensed and graduated in archeology; they are able to provide children and visits adapted for the disabled, and with their vast knowledge of ancient history and society they are able to make ancient Pompeii come to life. The most outstanding aspects of the city are covered, such as the Forum, the Baths, the brothel, the bakeries, the House of the Faun and the House of the Tragic Poet, the amphitheater, the theaters, the Villa of the Mysteries, the cemeteries and The fortifications of the city.

Geographical overview of Pompeii
The city of Pompei rises on a volcanic plateau 30 meters above sea level, on the southern side of Vesuvius, and a short distance from the mouth of the river Sarno.

The excavations in Pompeii
Pompeii was first discovered between 1592 and 1600 during the construction of the Sarno Canal that had to bring the river's waters to the nearby Torre Annunziata. However, the official beginning of the excavations took place only in 1748, under the reign of Charles of Bourbon, ten years after the first investigations in the soil of Herculaneum. Initially the excavations were carried out in a non-systematic way, with the simple objective of recovering valuable objects and decorations. It was only in 1763, when an inscription bearing its name was found in Porta Ercolano, that it was certain that those remains belonged to the ancient Pompeii and not, as some hypothesized, to Stabia. With the French domination, in the middle of the Enlightenment period, the research was aimed at reconstructing the topography of the city through extensive excavations. With the return of the Bourbons, the excavations continued especially in the north-western part of the city, where there were sensational discoveries such as the House of Faun.

With the Unity of Italy Giuseppe Fiorelli was appointed superintendent, and the excavation works had a fundamental change. The city was divided into regiones and insulae, the cast technique was introduced that allowed, pouring liquid plaster into the voids of the ground, to fix the last moments of life of men and animals. In the twentieth century with Amedeo Maiuri the extension of the excavations reached 44 hectares, and numerous facilities were built to facilitate the tourist use of the site. Following the terrible earthquake of 1980, the cataloging of the decorative heritage intensified,

Costume and society
The peculiarity of the site of Pompeii lies in the possibility of reconstructing with certainty the life in Roman times, along roads, visiting public buildings and private homes, entering the markets, and magnificent paintings, mosaics and everyday objects.

The rhythm of the sun marked the daily actions of the inhabitants of ancient Pompeii, the shops opened at dawn, and the Forum was filled with travelers and buyers, we went to the baths, also accessible to slaves, and frequented taverns, very numerous, for a hot meal or a game of dice. The amphitheater was the major attraction in the city, although fights between residents of Pompeii and their neigbours was a source of civil unrest. Widespread were also the lupanari, places dedicated to sexual pleasure, located in different parts of the city, to satisfy both the inhabitants and foreigners passing through. The cosmopolitan environment dictated by the presence of an active commercial port, led to the mixture of different religious beliefs, from oriental cults to Jews and even first Christians.

Permits / Rates

Hours
from 1 November to 31 March: every day from 8.30 am to 5.00 pm (last admission at 3.30 pm)
from 1 April to 31 October: every day from 8.30 to 19.30 (last entry at 18.00)

Entrances to Pompeii
Port Marina (Marine gate)
Piazza Anfiteatro
Piazza Esedra

Tickets to Pompeii
Single (valid for 1 day)
Full € 11.00
Reduced € 5.50
With access to 5 sites (Pompeii, Herculaneum, Oplonti, Stabia, Boscoreale) - (valid for 3 days)
Full price: € 20.00
Reduced: € 10.00

Free admission for citizens of the European Union, and of states subject to conditions of reciprocity, under 18 (not completed) and over 65 years (already completed) of age.

Reduced admission (50%) for citizens of the European Union and of states subject to conditions of reciprocity between the ages of 18 and 25 years.

Reduced admission (50%) for teachers and presidents of the European Union (when they do not accompany school groups) with permanent assignments of state schools. Free admission for principals, teachers and students of the Faculties of Architecture, Conservation of Cultural Heritage, Education Sciences and degree courses in Literature or literary subjects with archaeological or historical-artistic address of the Faculties of Literature and Philosophy of the Universities and of the Academies of Fine EU Arts + ERASMUS in the aforementioned subjects.

Free admission for MIBAC staff, ICCROM Members, ICR, ICOM, ISIA, Mosaic Restoration School of Ravenna, Pietre Dure Opificio of Florence + Central Institute of Restoration of Rome. Disabled people UE + guide. Journalists registered in the Italian national register. Citizens of states with special agreements of reciprocity (Law 27.6.1985, No. 332) as indicated by the agreement itself.

Free and reduced tickets can only be issued upon presentation of a valid identity document.

For the visit to the Archaeological Excavations of Pompeii it is advisable to rely on an authorized guide info@pompeiin.com +39 3284134719

Audio guides available either at the InfoPoint train station or at the official entrance of € 6.50, € 10 for two people, ID is required. They are not available at the east side entrance of the Amphitheater - which is the entrance closest to the center of the city today, if you are walking. Unofficial audio guides offered at one of the market stalls near the entrance. Take into account that the audio guide maps are not the same and the official audio guide comes with more audio points of interest. It is a good idea to review the two options before deciding. Pompeii can take several hours to explore, so be sure to ask about the duration of the audio guide's battery before your purchase. Tour guides are also grouped near the entrance and offer their services. It is a good idea to speak with one for a couple of minutes before deciding, to make sure that you can understand their accent when they speak English. You can join a group of tourists with the InfoPoint train station for € 12 (ticket not included) or € 10 at the official ticket.

How to get here

By bus

One of the easiest ways to get to Pompeii is by hopping SITA bus from Naples, Italy. It costs from €1.80 to €3.20 to hitch a ride here.

Train

You can travel to Pompeii by taking a train via Circumvesuviana Napoli-Sorrento line from Naples or Sorrento, Italy. The ride is fairly short. It takes about 30 to 40 minutes to get here. Its price ranges from €1.80 to €3.20. Get familiar yourself with a map of the train route to make sure you don't miss "Pompei Scavi" stop station, where you need to get off to reach Pompeii Archaeological Site. You can also leave your bags here for a low price of €1.5. As you get off station you can visit Tourist Information Center (50 meters away from station) to get more information about the site. Taking a map might be helpful if you don't want to get lost in this large settlement.

You can also travel to Pompeii from the Italian capital of Rome, Italy. You need to take a train from Termini to Naples. From there you need to changed trains by taking the escalator to the Circumvesuviana Napoli-Sorrento line. It costs €10.50 to get from Rome to Naples in one direction and another €1.80 to get from Naples to Pompeii itself.

Cruise

If you travel to Italy on a cruise you can take boat to the shore and then get a bus shuttle to Pompeii. Most of tourists who travel here by boat usually include visit to the ancient site as part of the travel arrangements.

Mobility inside

Pompeii is assessible by foot. However, walking on the ancient Roman roads is tiring, especially in the heat of summer.
For strollers and wheelchair users, as well as people with mobility problems, the visit of Pompeii is only partially suitable. Disabled travelers should aim to enter the Piazza Anfiteatro, where the entrance has been designed to meet the needs of visitors with reduced mobility (and parents with strollers, too). Be careful with the main entrance to the Marine Gate, as it has a lot of stairs.

There are some bikes to rent, but surfaces that are very impractical. Keep in mind that walking the ancient Roman stone roads can be very tiring, especially in the summer heat with a lot of other tourists around. Everyone is going to walk on cobbled and irregular streets. The temperature ranges between 32 and 35 ° C in the summer. Be sure to drink plenty of water and watch your step as the old roads have slots in them where the cars ran. It is advisable to wear good shoes, sunscreen and a hat. There is a lot to see and I could take all day to see everything.

When buying your ticket, you should receive a map of Pompeii and a brochure that lists the main places of interest. However, these can sometimes be out of print or you may find that the only book available is in Italian. A site map is essential if you want to see a large amount in the shortest possible time. Even with a map visiting Pompeii is a bit like a trip to a labyrinth. Many of the roads, apparently open according to the map, become blocked by excavations or repairs, or, as happened in 2010, because a building collapsed. You might think that it is heading towards the exit, but then they have to turn around and retrace their steps to find another path.

Tips

Information about Pompeii is available at the entrances Porta Marina, Piazza Esedra and Piazza Anfiteatro .
The wild running dogs belong to the excavation area of Pompeii, they can be sponsored, but the dogs are not abandoned.
Weather in Italy can be difficult to bear in summer months. It can easily reach 40C on hottest day. Keep this in mind and make sure you take plenty of water. Additionally you can cover your head and take sun tan to avoid sun burn.
The closest ATM to the site of Pompeii is that near Pompei Scavi train station. There is no way to get cash once you enter the site so take as much cash as you might need while you travel to the site.
Plan your visit in advance in Google Maps or Google Earth, or relive it later. There is Streetview coverage of part of the city and there are 3D models of many of the buildings. Bing Maps also offers very detailed oblique views of the city.
Buy a guide. Get the official guide (Pompeii: guide for the site, edited by Electa Napoli) in the bookstore on the site next to the box office. A lot of guides and maps are available, but this one perfectly combines the two.
Visit also the National Museum of Naples, where most of the best preserved mosaics and found elements of Pompeii are kept.
Visit also the site of sister Herculaneum, is that only a Circumvesuviana set aside and suffered a fate similar to Pompeii. Although it is a smaller site that was covered by a pyroclastic surge (instead of the ash and lapilli that covered Pompeii). This allowed some second plants to survive.
Take a look at random villas outside of Pompeii, as sometimes even small side rooms have incredible frescoes (wall paintings).
Do not miss the "Garden of the Fugitives" in the south-east part in plaster casts of several victims (unfortunately, including children) are on display in which they sank The plants in this garden have been reconstructed to match with the ancient growth, based on the study of gypsum models of the roots of plants.
Walk outside the gates of the city to the Villa of the Mysteries, one of the largest houses to come to us since ancient times. Even on a very hot day, it's worth the walk.
Insert a large memory card into your camera. There are hundreds of opportunities to take photos in Pompeii.

Food and Restaurants

Dining Inside the Archaeological Park
Food options within the site are limited and geared toward visitors.
Chora-managed spots (including the self-service “Pizza, Pasta & More” at Casina dell’Aquila and cafes) offer basic Italian fare like pizza, pasta, sandwiches, and drinks. A newer full Chora Restaurant at Casina dell’Aquila emphasizes park-inspired or local products in a historic 19th-century building. These are convenient but not destinations for a full meal—expect crowds and simpler quality.
Ancient thermopolia (Roman fast-food stalls) have been excavated, such as the well-preserved one in Regio V. These are historical sites, not operating restaurants, but they give insight into ancient street food (e.g., dishes with duck, goat, snails, fish, and wine). Visitors can view them but not eat there.
Most visitors eat before/after their visit or bring snacks. Picnics are possible in designated areas.

Top Recommended Restaurants Near the Site
Here are standout options based on recent reviews (TripAdvisor, Michelin, etc.), focusing on those popular with tourists and locals. Many are within walking distance of the main entrances (Porta Marina, Piazza Anfiteatro, etc.). Book ahead, especially in peak season.
1. Caupona (Via Masseria Curato, 2) — A highly immersive, themed experience.
This restaurant recreates an ancient caupona (Roman tavern) with vivid Third Style frescoes, terracotta tableware, and an atmosphere evoking 79 AD Pompeii. Diners can optionally wear Roman-style costumes. It serves both modern Italian/Mediterranean dishes and authentic ancient Roman recipes inspired by Apicius’ De Re Coquinaria (e.g., spiced meats, ancient preparations of lamb, pasta, or soups). Signature elements include wines like Mulsum (honey-spiced), Pompeianum, or Falernum served in amphorae, plus entertainment.
Reviews praise the unique setting, generous portions, friendly service, and flavorful food (tasting/gladiator menus are popular, though some find set menus variable in quality). It’s a short walk from the site and great for families or history buffs. Price: €€–€€€. Open daily for lunch/dinner. Vegetarian/vegan/gluten-free options available. Ideal for a memorable post-ruins meal.
2. Bistrot Fratelli Cannavacciuolo — High-rated for seafood and quality.
Part of the Cannavacciuolo family (linked to celebrity chef Antonino), this bistrot emphasizes fresh seafood and Italian classics in a welcoming setting. High TripAdvisor scores (4.9+) for freshness, service, and dishes like tuna tartare or Amalfi-inspired menus. Price: $$–$$$. Popular with visitors seeking elevated but approachable dining.
3. Mercato Pompeiano (and its Pizzeria) — Reliable, varied Italian fare.
Intimate spot in a charming historic building with stone walls. Offers pasta (e.g., alla Genovese, pasta e patate), seafood, meats, pizzas, craft beers, and wines. Relaxed vibe with excellent service. The pizzeria branch focuses on Neapolitan-style pies. Strong reviews for consistency and value. Price: €€. Great for families or groups.
4. Il Principe (Piazza Bartolo Longo or nearby) — Fine dining with Roman touches.
Elegant Michelin-recognized restaurant (modern cuisine) open since 1986. Chef Gian Marco Carli offers refined Neapolitan and creative dishes, including historical Roman-inspired options and signature desserts like Oplontis cassata. Calm atmosphere, outstanding service, and high-quality ingredients. Price: €€–€€€€. A top pick for a special meal.
5. Stuzzico By Lucius (Via Plinio, 7) — Creative and terrace dining.
Seasonal menu highlighting local produce, seafood (e.g., spaghetti with sea urchin), and meats (duck breast). Stylish with a beautiful outdoor terrace. Cozy, high-praise food and service. Price: €€€.
6. La Bettola Del Gusto — Creative seasonal with terrace views.
Focus on seafood, grilled octopus, ragus, and vegetarian options. Stylish setting near the site. Price: €€€. Good for al fresco dining.
Other notables:
Kalma Restaurant, Cosmo Restaurant, Trammiere (pizza-focused, welcoming), Garum (traditional with enoteca/wine focus), Add’ù Mimi’ (Neapolitan, octopus and homemade pasta), and President (Mediterranean fine dining).
Budget/quick: Na’ Pasta, Le Delizie, or pizzerias like Alleria.

What to Eat in Pompeii
Campanian classics dominate:
Pizza — Neapolitan-style (Margherita, local variations).
Seafood — Fresh fish, octopus, tuna, shellfish from nearby coasts.
Pasta — Genovese (onion-beef sauce), seafood pastas, or ancient-inspired versions.
Local specialties — Try dishes with Vesuvian ingredients (tomatoes, apricots, wines). Ancient recreations at Caupona add duck/goat/snail elements historically.
Desserts — Limoncello, cassata, ricotta-based sweets.
Wines — Local Campanian varieties (Falanghina, Aglianico) or ancient-style.
Portions are often generous; many spots offer tasting menus or fixed tourist options. Prices range from budget (€10–20/person casual) to upscale (€50+ for fine dining). Vegetarian, vegan, and gluten-free options are widely available.

Practical Tips for Visitors
Location — Most cluster near entrances or Via Sacra/Via Roma. Use maps or ask at the site.
Timing — Lunch after morning ruins visit; dinner for a relaxed evening. Many open 12–3 PM and 7–11 PM.
Crowds & Reservations — Essential in high season. Tourist menus can be hit-or-miss—opt for places with good recent reviews.
Inside the site — Limited; bring water/snacks or use the cafes.
For your website — Highlight immersive spots like Caupona for history lovers, seafood for coastal appeal, and family-friendly options. Pair with Pompeii guides (e.g., link to ruins tickets or history sections).

Hotels

Why Stay in Pompeii?
Proximity to ruins: Many hotels sit within a 5–10 minute walk of entrances like Piazza Esedra (main) or Piazza Anfiteatro. This enables flexible visits, including two-day tickets for deeper exploration of sites like the Villa of the Mysteries or the Antiquarium.
Practical advantages: Avoid commuting hassles; good for families, seniors, or multi-day stays. Evenings feel calmer and more authentic.
Location perks: Via Plinio stands out as the most convenient street, leading straight to the main entrance. Many options include parking (valuable in high season) and EV charging.
Access: Circumvesuviana train stops at Pompei Scavi – Villa dei Misteri (short walk). Naples airport is ~30 minutes by car/taxi. Highway A3 exit Pompei Ovest for drivers.

Hotels range from budget-friendly guesthouses to upscale boutique properties. Peak season (summer) books up fast; shoulder seasons (spring/fall) offer better value and fewer crowds.

Top Hotels in/near Pompeii
Here are standout options based on location, ratings, reviews, and unique features (ratings approximate from recent TripAdvisor/Booking.com data; check current prices and availability).
1. Hotel Forum Pompei (Via Roma 99)
Highly rated 4-star hotel, ~0.4 miles from the site. Guests praise the excellent location (short walk to Piazza Anfiteatro entrance), cleanliness, friendly staff, and rooftop terrace with Vesuvius views. Rooms feel modern and comfortable (some recently renovated); some offer views. On-site restaurant serves good Italian cuisine; breakfast gets strong mentions. Parking available (may be nearby open-air). Ideal for convenience and value.
2. Hotel del Sole (Via Plinio 15)
Very close to the main entrance (~0.3 miles), popular for its position right opposite the ruins. Solid mid-range choice with straightforward rooms, helpful staff, and proximity to restaurants (e.g., Zi’Caterina recommendations). Good for budget-conscious travelers wanting walkable access without luxury frills.
3. Habita79 Pompeii (a Tribute Portfolio Hotel, Via Roma 10)
Modern upscale option (~0.5 miles) blending contemporary design with Roman-inspired elements. Features include a pool, spa (emotional showers, relaxation areas), and rooftop bar with views. Rooms are stylish and well-appointed; staff receive consistent praise for professionalism. Great for couples or those seeking comfort after a day of exploring. Breakfast and facilities stand out.
4. Bosco de' Medici Resort (Via Antonio Segni 43)
Resort-style property with winery vibes, ~0.4 miles away. Spacious rooms, lovely pool area surrounded by nature/trees, and a calm atmosphere. Appeals to those wanting a relaxing base with some luxury touches. Positive feedback on grounds and tranquility despite proximity to the site.
5. Villa Silvana (Boscoreale area)
Charming boutique hotel in a restored noble villa with gardens, at the foot of Vesuvius. Only a handful of classically styled rooms with frescoes and period furniture. Peaceful and elegant; perfect for history enthusiasts seeking atmosphere over central buzz. Short stroll to Pompeii.

Other Notable Mentions:
Palazzo Balsamo, Dream House Pompei, Grand Hotel Royal: High ratings for modern/clean rooms, hospitality, and value. Many include breakfast.
B&Bs like Casa di Plinio or Relais Country House Pompei: Intimate, traditional options with hearty breakfasts, antiques, and personal service. Great for authentic Italian feel.
Tesoro Pompeiano (Via Plinio 52): Eco-friendly with private parking, EV charging, renewable energy, and direct access—practical and sustainable.
Luxury travelers might consider nearby Sorrento or Castellammare di Stabia properties (e.g., La Medusa) for more amenities, but they sacrifice immediate ruins access.

Amenities and What to Expect
Common features: Air conditioning (essential in summer), Wi-Fi, breakfast (often included, with Italian classics like pastries, coffee, fresh fruit), and some parking. Many have gardens, terraces, or small pools.
Views: Look for Vesuvius or ruins glimpses, especially from upper floors or rooftops.
Dining: On-site restaurants or nearby spots for pizza, seafood, and local Campanian cuisine. Evenings bring a relaxed vibe with fewer day-trippers.
Family/Accessibility: Many central hotels suit families; check for elevators or ground-floor rooms. The site itself has uneven terrain, so plan accordingly.
Sustainability: Options like Tesoro Pompeiano highlight green practices.

Practical Tips for Your Stay
Best time: Early morning or late afternoon at the ruins. Two consecutive days maximize enjoyment.
Booking: Use sites like Booking.com or official hotel pages. Read recent reviews for updates on renovations or services.
Getting around: Walk to the site; trains/buses for day trips. Rent a car for flexibility (Vesuvius, coast), but note parking/zones.
What to bring: Comfortable shoes, hat/sunscreen (limited shade in ruins), water. Download audio guides or hire local experts.
Combining visits: Pompeii pairs well with Herculaneum (less crowded, different preservation), Naples museums, or Amalfi boat trips.

Stay safe

Mount Vesuvius remains one of the world's most famous active volcanoes, located just east of Naples in the Campania region of Italy. Its catastrophic eruption in 79 AD famously buried the thriving Roman city of Pompeii under layers of ash, pumice (lapilli), and pyroclastic flows, preserving a remarkable snapshot of ancient daily life. While the volcano is still active and could erupt again, modern monitoring systems give visitors good reason to feel secure. The Osservatorio Vesuviano (part of Italy's National Institute of Geophysics and Volcanology) operates a sophisticated network of seismographs, gas sensors, GPS deformation trackers, and other instruments that can detect early signs of unrest. This allows authorities to issue warnings well in advance if needed.
In reality, the biggest threat to today's visitors is not falling ash or lava, but the common urban hazard of pickpockets. Pompeii's archaeological park draws hundreds of thousands of international tourists each year, creating a prime environment for thieves. Crowded areas near the main entrances (Porta Marina, Piazza Esedra), the Circumvesuviana train station in Pompeii town, and popular photo spots inside the ruins are particularly risky. Keep your valuables secure: use a money belt or cross-body bag, avoid flashing expensive cameras or phones, and stay alert in busy zones. Standard travel advice for Italy applies — never leave bags unattended and be wary of distractions like "helpful" strangers.

Parking Advice for Drivers
If you're arriving by car, exercise caution with parking. The official-looking lots right next to the archaeological site's entrances can be expensive tourist traps. There is often no price displayed upfront, but when you try to leave, you'll discover a rate of around €2 per hour (or more). A full-day visit — highly recommended, as Pompeii deserves at least 4–6 hours or even a full day to explore its streets, villas, forums, amphitheater, and frescoed houses properly — could easily cost €20–30 or higher.

Better alternatives:
Park a few hundred meters uphill in the town of Pompeii itself, where street parking or smaller private lots are usually much more affordable.
Many hotels and guesthouses in Pompeii and nearby areas (such as those along Via Villa dei Misteri or in the modern town) offer free or discounted parking for guests. Booking accommodation with parking included can save both money and hassle.
Consider using public transport or shuttles from Naples or Sorrento if possible, to avoid driving stress altogether.

These small adjustments let you focus on the wonders of Pompeii rather than unexpected fees. The site is best visited early in the morning or late afternoon to beat crowds and the summer heat, and wearing comfortable shoes is essential — the ancient stone streets are uneven and cover a large area.