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Great Theatre of Pompeii

Location: Regio VIII

The Great Theatre of Pompeii, also known as the Teatro Grande or Large Theatre, is one of the most iconic structures in the ancient Roman city of Pompeii, located in the Campania region of southern Italy at coordinates 40°44’56.5″N 14°29’18.3″E. Situated in the southern sector of the archaeological site near the Triangular Forum, Doric Temple, and Stabian Gate, it forms part of a larger theatrical complex that includes the Small Theatre (Odeon) and a quadriporticus (four-sided portico) to the southeast. Built into a natural hillside slope of lava and earth, this southeast-facing theatre exemplifies the blend of Greek Hellenistic and Roman architectural influences. It is one of the oldest surviving stone theatres in the Roman world, with a horseshoe-shaped (or elongated U-shaped) design that distinguishes it from the more semicircular Roman theatres. The structure was preserved remarkably well due to the catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, which buried Pompeii under layers of ash and pumice, halting its use and protecting it for future discovery.

Historical Background

The origins of the Great Theatre trace back to the Samnite period in the late 3rd to 2nd century BCE, making it a pre-Roman structure initially constructed by the Samnites, the indigenous people of the region before Roman colonization. An earlier Hellenistic-style theatre existed on the site, featuring an elongated U-shaped plan typical of Greek traditions, but the current form was rebuilt around the mid-2nd century BCE to accommodate the growing needs of the community. Following Pompeii's incorporation as a Roman colony in 80 BCE under Sulla, the theatre underwent significant Roman-influenced modifications to align with imperial standards. Key patrons included the wealthy Holconius brothers—Marcus Holconius Rufus and Marcus Holconius Celer—who were prominent vine growers and funded extensive renovations during the Augustan period around 2 BCE, as evidenced by inscriptions at the site. These inscriptions commemorate their contributions, such as resurfacing the seating in marble (later removed post-destruction) and expanding the capacity. The theatre was damaged in the earthquake of 62 CE, with repairs ongoing when Vesuvius erupted in 79 CE, burying the structure and preserving it in a state that reflects its final Roman phase.

Architectural Features

The Great Theatre's architecture combines functionality with aesthetic grandeur, drawing from Greek roots while incorporating Roman innovations. The cavea (tiered seating area) measures approximately 60 meters in diameter and is divided into three horizontal zones separated by corridors: the ima cavea (lower section) with 18 rows of seats in 5 wedge-shaped cunei (sectors), reserved for elites like decurions; the media cavea (middle section), the largest area for representatives of corporations and wealthy citizens; and the summa cavea (upper section) with 5 rows in 7 cunei for the general populace. Seats in the ima cavea were about 0.38 m high and 0.72 m deep, with some numbered (e.g., engraved fragments showing 0.39 m per seat) for assigned seating, and a special seat of honor in the center of the lowest row for Marcus Holconius Rufus.
The orchestra, a horseshoe-shaped area at the base with a diameter of 20.9 meters (18.8 meters at the surrounding passage), was paved with limestone and included four steps for bisellia (movable chairs for dignitaries), along with a rectangular water basin possibly for dramatic effects or drainage. In Hellenistic times, it served for choreography, but under Roman use, it accommodated prominent figures. The pulpitum (stage) is 33.36 meters long and 6.4-7.15 meters wide (8.10 meters including the proscaenium wall), elevated about 1.25 meters high, with nine mast holes for an aulaeum (curtain) system that could be lowered into a slot for scene changes.
The scaenae frons (stage backdrop) was a two-story columnatio about 8.5 meters high, rebuilt post-62 CE earthquake to imitate a grand building facade with columns, niches for statues, and doorways: a central regia (royal door, 2.25 m wide in a curved niche) flanked by two hospitalia (guest doors, 2.05 m wide in rectangular niches), plus additional niches. Behind the stage was an unusually shaped dressing room spanning the full width, accessible via three doors, leading to a large courtyard (quadriporticus) with stuccoed columns.
Access was provided through two aditus maximi (main entrances) with tribunalia (VIP boxes) above for honored guests, offering optimal views, and secondary passages from the parodoi (covered side aisles) to the praecinctio (walkway). A crypta (vaulted corridor) supported the summa cavea, and the outer facade featured two stories of arches framed by brick pilasters, with brackets for vela (awning) masts. The velarium, a large retractable canopy for sun protection, was anchored by perforated stone blocks and operated by sailors or slaves. Notable decorations include a 2nd-century BCE satyr figure in the keystone of the west parodos and various reliefs imitating a princely palace.

Renovations and Modifications

The theatre evolved through several phases:
Samnite Phase (2nd century BCE): Initial construction with a horseshoe cavea, open parodoi, water basin, and rectilinear scaenae frons with three doorways.
Early Roman Phase (c. 75 BCE): Proscaenium modifications and possible single-row column scaenae frons.
Augustan Phase (c. 2 BCE): Major overhaul by the Holconii, including cavea rebuilding with four curved walls, addition of crypta, tribunalia, summa cavea, limestone orchestra paving, and marble seating.
Post-Earthquake Phase (63-79 CE): Brick-faced scaenae frons repairs; work interrupted by the eruption.

Modern interventions include partial cavea restoration in the Bourbon era (mid-18th to early 19th centuries) and 20th-century consolidations with removable seating to preserve integrity.

Function and Use

With a capacity of 3,100-5,000 spectators—potentially over half of Pompeii's estimated 10-12,000 population—the theatre was a vital social and cultural hub. It hosted a variety of performances, including Greek and Roman tragedies, comedies, mimes, pantomimes, atellanes (local farces), music, singing, dancing, and even gladiatorial events or public gatherings. Seating was socially stratified, reflecting Roman hierarchy: elites in the ima cavea, middle classes in the media, and lower classes in the summa. The aulaeum curtain and water features added dramatic flair, while the velarium ensured comfort during daytime shows.

Excavations and Preservation

Excavations began with Karl Weber's tunneling in 1764-1765, followed by systematic clearing under Caroline Bonaparte (1806-1815) and Giuseppe Fiorelli's stratigraphic methods (1860-1875), which fully exposed the site. Amedeo Maiuri's studies (1924-1961) provided detailed documentation, and recent efforts focus on conservation, stabilizing about 75% of the original seating and limiting large events to prevent damage. The structure survives with substantial remains, including the cavea up to the summa level and the stage to about 2 meters high.

Significance

The Great Theatre stands as a testament to Pompeii's cultural vibrancy and the fusion of Samnite, Hellenistic, and Roman influences, showcasing early Roman engineering like vaulted substructures and social stratification in public spaces. Its preservation offers invaluable insights into ancient performance arts, patronage systems (e.g., the Holconii's role indicating social mobility), and daily life, with features like numbered seats and honor inscriptions highlighting community organization. As part of UNESCO-listed Pompeii, it underscores the site's global importance in understanding Roman society.

Modern Use

Today, the theatre is accessible via Pompeii's archaeological park entrances (e.g., Porta Marina or Piazza Esedra) in Regio VIII – 10. Visitors can explore the cavea, parodoi, scaena (partially walkable), and nearby sites like the Odeon and Temple of Isis. It occasionally hosts small-scale performances during the summer "Pompeii Theatrum Mundi" festival, with informational panels on-site. Comfortable shoes are recommended for the uneven terrain, and summer events provide a unique immersive experience in this ancient venue.