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House of the Four Styles, Pompeii

The House of the Four Styles, also known as Casa dei Quattro Stili (I.8.17), is a well-preserved Roman domus (townhouse) in the ancient city of Pompeii, Italy. It derives its name from the presence of wall paintings exemplifying all four major styles of Pompeian fresco decoration, which span from the late 2nd century BCE to the 1st century CE, reflecting evolving artistic trends in Roman domestic art. This makes it a key site for understanding the chronological and stylistic development of Roman wall painting. The house was buried under volcanic ash during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE, preserving its structures and artworks. It was excavated in two main phases: initially in 1937–1938 and later in 1951, with restoration work conducted between 1975 and 1978 to stabilize and protect the site. The house is linked structurally to the adjacent property at I.8.11, suggesting it may have been part of a larger complex or expanded over time. It occupies a modest but typical urban plot in Regio I, near Vicolo dell’Efebo, and features a standard Roman domus layout centered around an atrium and peristyle, with a mix of public reception areas, private bedrooms, service spaces, and a garden. The overall design indicates it belonged to a middle-class or affluent family, with evidence of post-62 CE earthquake repairs influencing some decorations.

Architectural Layout and Overall Features

The house follows the classic axial Roman plan, entering from the street into a fauces (entrance corridor) leading to a central atrium (Room 3), which serves as the main hub connecting to side rooms, alae (wings), and a tablinum (reception room). From there, a corridor leads to a rear peristyle (colonnaded garden, Room 17), surrounded by additional rooms for leisure, storage, and services. The atrium is tetrastyle (supported by four columns) with a central impluvium (rainwater basin) and compluvium (roof opening) for light and ventilation. The peristyle includes a garden with porticoes, providing a private outdoor space. Notable architectural elements include niches for shrines (lararia), bed recesses in bedrooms, and remnants of upper floors (evidenced by staircases and timber casts). The façade features benches outside the entrance for clients or visitors, and the interior spans about 300–400 square meters. Artifacts recovered include bronze statuettes (e.g., an actor and Pan), oil lamps with theatrical motifs, cymbals, a glass ointment jar, and a cylindrical food warmer with intricate Triton and Medusa designs (now in the Naples Archaeological Museum), highlighting the household's cultural and daily life.

The four Pompeian wall painting styles represented here are:
First Style (Incrustation, ca. 150–80 BCE): Imitates expensive marble and stone veneers through painted stucco reliefs and moldings, creating a luxurious architectural facade.
Second Style (Architectural, ca. 80–20 BCE): Uses perspective to illusionistically extend space with painted columns, arches, and vistas, making walls appear like open architecture.
Third Style (Ornate or Egyptianizing, ca. 20 BCE–45 CE): Emphasizes flat, monochromatic backgrounds with delicate, slender motifs, small vignettes, and intricate borders, often with Egyptian-inspired elements like lotuses.
Fourth Style (Intricate or Fantastic, ca. 45–79 CE): Eclectic fusion of previous styles, featuring complex frameworks, large mythological panels, floating figures, and fantastical architecture on vibrant or white grounds.

These styles appear across rooms, often reflecting renovations after the 62 CE earthquake, with earlier styles in foundational areas and later ones in remodeled spaces.

Detailed Room Descriptions

The house comprises at least 23 identified rooms, with decorations varying by function and period. Below is an in-depth breakdown by area, highlighting layout, key features, decorations, and associated styles where documented.

Entrance and Atrium Area (Rooms 1–3, 5–6, 8)
Prothyrum and Entrance Vestibule (Rooms 1–2): The street entrance (fauces) features a mosaic floor and plastered walls with remnants of simple decorations, transitioning into the vestibule with north and south walls showing faded plaster. This area serves as a threshold, with a travertine marble sill and views toward the atrium. Decorations are minimal, likely utilitarian, with no specific styles noted, though early plaster could align with First Style imitations.
Atrium and Impluvium (Room 3): The heart of the house, this open courtyard measures about 6x7 meters, with a rectangular impluvium for water collection and four column capitals supporting the compluvium. It connects to nearly all front rooms via doorways. Notable features include a niche lararium (household shrine) in the southeast corner, table legs painted with herms (pillar-like figures) on the east side of the impluvium, and a southeast niche next to Room 8. Decorations include painted stucco remnants on walls, suggesting a mix of styles from renovations; the space's prominence likely featured Second or Third Style elements for illusionistic depth.
Southwest Rooms (Rooms 5–6): Room 6 is a small space with a travertine sill doorway from the atrium, leading west to Room 5. These are likely service or storage areas with minimal documented decorations and no specified styles.
Southeast Room (Room 8): Adjacent to the atrium's southeast corner, this room has a threshold step from the atrium, a window overlooking an external garden (I.8.14), and a niche shrine. Decorations are sparse, with no wall paintings detailed, possibly simple plaster in a functional style.

South Wing and Ala (Rooms 4, 7)
Cubiculum (Room 4): A bedroom south of the entrance corridor, with doorways to the atrium. It features painted walls including a central west wall panel depicting a Maenad (female follower of Dionysus) holding a thyrsus (staff) on a pedestal. Upper and lower wall sections show additional details. The figurative motif suggests Third Style ornamentation, with its delicate, vignette-like focus.
South Ala (Room 7): A wing room south of the atrium, with flooring and walls visible across the impluvium. Decorations are elaborate: the south wall has a central still-life of fishes; the west wall features black panels with birds; and upper zones add further motifs. This monochromatic paneling with small, intricate vignettes exemplifies the Third Style's ornate delicacy.

Tablinum and Adjacent (Rooms 9–10)
Tablinum or Pillared Oecus (Room 9): East of the atrium, this formal reception room has a west opening to the atrium and a northwest doorway to Room 10. Walls feature mythological scenes: the north wall depicts Hercules freeing Theseus in the Underworld (without landscape); the east wall shows Daedalus tying wings on Icarus, with a predella of birds eating fruit and upper masks; the south wall portrays the Judgement of Paris in a landscape with goddesses, Cupid, Hermes, and Paris. Cornices are in Second Style (architectural illusionism), while the large narrative panels with landscapes blend Third and Fourth Styles' elements.
Cubiculum (Room 10): North of the tablinum, this bedroom contains plaster casts of eruption victims (two bodies and a head, possibly relocated from elsewhere). No specific decorations or styles are noted.

North Wing and Alae (Rooms 12–15)
Corridor (Room 11): A passageway east from the atrium to the peristyle, with no notable decorations.
Cubiculum (Room 12): Northeast of the atrium, with windows overlooking the north ala and a doorway threshold. Decorations include a stucco shield and cornice on the west wall, central yellow panels with red sides on north and west walls, and First Style moldings imitating architectural reliefs.
North Ala (Room 13): Central north of the atrium, connecting to Rooms 12, 14, and 15. Walls feature painted decorations, including a zoccolo (base) on the north wall and upper east wall motifs, likely in a mixed style but with ornate details suggesting Third Style.
Cubiculum (Room 14): Northwest corner of the atrium, with bed recesses in south and north walls, a window above the west wall, and a reconstructed vaulted ceiling. Decorations include painted panels, garlands, a medallion, and a jug motif, evoking Third Style's delicate ornamentation.
Cubiculum with Alcove (Room 15): Northwest of the entrance, with doorways to the atrium and corridor, a closet in the northwest corner, and an alcove for a bed. Walls show marbling (imitation marble) with outlines (e.g., a towel or scarf), moldings, and upper-zone decorations, characteristic of First Style incrustation.

Peristyle and Rear Rooms (Rooms 16–23)
Peristyle Garden (Room 17): Rear colonnaded garden with porticoes, a round puteal (wellhead) in the southwest corner, and connections to surrounding rooms. No specific wall paintings, but the space likely featured garden-related motifs.
Room 16: Southwest of the peristyle, with views to the atrium. North wall painting depicts Ariadne sleeping, Theseus, and Athena; south wall has a faded landscape. Vivid colors and framed narratives suggest Fourth Style eclecticism.
Exedra (Room 18): Central west of the peristyle, an open reception alcove. West wall features a reassembled painting of Pan and nymphs by a lake, with rocks, a tree, column, and votive tablet. The landscape and mythological scene align with Fourth Style's intricate fantasies.
Small Room/Storeroom (Room 19): West of the peristyle, with a recess; no decorations noted. Adjacent staircase leads to an upper floor, where a food warmer was found.
Room 20: Northwest corner of the peristyle; remnants of structures on the north wall, no paintings.
Kitchen (Room 21) and Latrine (Room 22): Southeast of the peristyle, viewed through windows; functional spaces with no decorations described.
Room 23: Adjacent to service areas, decorated in explicit Fourth Style: white walls with red-bordered panels depicting birds, a swan, and a panther.

The House of the Four Styles stands out for its stylistic diversity, illustrating Pompeii's artistic evolution amid seismic and volcanic disruptions. While some decorations have faded, the site's integration of functional architecture with vivid artistry offers a window into Roman daily life and aesthetics.