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House of the Surgeon, Pompeii

Address: Regio VI, nsula 1
Area: 499 square meters
Rooms: 16

The House of the Surgeon, archaeologically designated as VI.1.10 (Regio VI, Insula 1, Entrance 10), is one of the most famous and earliest surviving examples of a domestic residence in Pompeii, Italy. Located in the northwest corner of the city along Via Consolare—a major road leading to the Herculaneum Gate—this modest-sized elite domus exemplifies pre-Roman Italic architecture adapted over time to Roman influences. Named after a cache of ancient surgical instruments discovered during excavation, it belonged to a prosperous family, possibly involved in medical or commercial activities, though ownership details remain speculative. Buried under 4–6 meters of volcanic ash and pumice during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD, the house provides a window into Pompeii's evolution from a Samnite settlement to a Roman colony, highlighting construction techniques, daily life, and the impacts of seismic events like the 62 AD earthquake. As part of the UNESCO-listed Pompeii Archaeological Park, it is significant for its sturdy build and relative simplicity, contrasting with more ornate later houses, and has been the focus of ongoing archaeological projects.

Historical Context and Excavation

The house's origins trace to the Samnite period (pre-80 BC), with initial construction dated to the late 3rd or early 2nd century BC based on artifacts like a coin from 214–212 BC and a black gloss lamp found beneath the atrium. This challenges earlier theories of a 4th-century BC foundation, now revised through modern analysis. Built on a plot with evidence of an even earlier structure (possibly aligned differently), it reflects Pompeii's pre-Roman Italic roots. After the Social Wars (91–89 BC) and Pompeii's incorporation as a Roman colony in 80 BC, the house underwent modifications, including atrium enhancements for better light and ventilation. By the 1st century AD, it had declined: damage from the 62 AD earthquake left the roof propped with wooden posts, a floor collapsed into a cistern, and one room repurposed as a lime-storage tank, indicating incomplete repairs by 79 AD. In contrast, neighboring properties like the House of the Vestals grew more luxurious, suggesting shifting urban dynamics.
Excavation began in 1770–1771 under Francesco La Vega, making it one of the first houses uncovered in Pompeii. The discovery of surgical tools prompted its naming, with initial documentation including 18th-century engravings of wall decorations. Further work by Amedeo Maiuri in 1926 explored subsoil layers, though results were unpublished until later reviews. The Anglo-American Project in Pompeii (AAPP) conducted detailed studies from the 1980s onward, including the entire Insula VI.1 in 2005, refining dating and revealing pre-existing structures. Archival research has incorporated monochrome engravings, colored fresco fragments, and a 1:100 scale model (Plastico) in Naples' National Archaeological Museum for reconstructing decorations. The house remains under study, with 3D modeling aiding interpretations of its phases.

Architecture and Layout

Constructed in opus quadratum (large ashlar blocks of Sarno limestone) and opus africanum (limestone framing with rubble infill), the house is sturdy and functional, with an opus quadratum façade facing Via Consolare—unusual for internal walls like the atrium, which contributed to early dating misconceptions. Spanning a modest footprint, it follows a classic Italic atrium plan, emphasizing axial symmetry without the later Roman peristyle addition due to space constraints.
The layout begins with a narrow fauces (vestibule) flanked by shops (VI.1.9 and VI.1.23), leading to a rectangular atrium with a compluvium (roof opening) and impluvium (basin) added in the 2nd century BC for rainwater collection. The atrium, surrounded by rooms on all sides, served as the central hub for light, air, and social activities. Four small cubicula (bedrooms) line the east and west sides. At the rear, the tablinum (study/reception room) with folding wooden doors overlooks the garden, flanked by two triclinia (dining rooms): a larger winter triclinium to the east and a smaller summer triclinium to the west, converted during 1st-century BC updates. A separate service wing, accessed via a narrow passageway or rear entrance, includes the kitchen (Room 11) with hearth and latrine, pantry, and storage—designed for discreet servant movement. Upper floors, evidenced by stair remnants, likely held additional bedrooms or storage.

Gardens and Outdoor Features

Unlike grander Pompeian homes, the House of the Surgeon lacks a full peristyle but features a small hortus (back garden, Room 8) at the northeast rear, accessible via a partial colonnaded portico on the west side supported by two limestone pillars. This garden, excavated in 1770–1771, provided a modest outdoor space for leisure, with a large window from the adjacent room (Room 9) offering views. The design retained pre-Roman Italic elements, prioritizing utility over luxury, and likely included plantings for shade and herbs, though no botanical remains are specified.

Decorations and Frescoes

Decorations are sparse externally but include internal frescoes, mostly in the First Style (incised plaster imitating marble) with some mythological themes. Room 9 (south of the garden) is the most ornate, featuring Third Style frescoes: on the east wall, a young woman painting a herm of Dionysus assisted by a cupid and observed by two maidens (discovered June 22, 1771; now in Naples Museum, inv. 9018); a tragic mask and panther in the dado; and architectural panels. The south wall shows a seated man with a writing tablet facing two women (one seated, one standing with papyrus). A third, faded fresco depicts an unclear scene. In the kitchen (Room 11), a lararium (household shrine) on the south wall has two zones: the upper with the Genius pouring a libation, a Camillus, and figures; the lower with serpents at an altar. Fragments and engravings aid reconstruction, as in-situ paintings have deteriorated.

Artifacts

The eponymous surgical instruments—a set of bronze tools including scalpels, probes, and forceps—were found in 1771, suggesting a resident physician. Other finds include a 214–212 BC coin and black gloss lamp beneath the atrium, aiding dating; fresco panels now in museums; and everyday items like pottery from the kitchen. No major statues or valuables are noted, reflecting the house's utilitarian state by 79 AD.

Significance

As one of Pompeii's earliest excavated and dated houses, it illustrates the transition from Samnite to Roman domestic architecture, with its sturdy construction and adaptations highlighting elite living amid urban constraints. Its decline mirrors broader seismic and economic challenges in 1st-century Pompeii. The site contributes to studies on ancient medicine (via tools), wall painting evolution, and urban archaeology, with AAPP excavations providing data for 3D models and interdisciplinary research. Though modest, it attracts scholars for its authenticity, offering insights into pre-eruption life.