The Villa of the Papyri (Villa dei Papiri or Villa dei Pisoni) is an ancient Roman luxury villa located on the northwestern outskirts of Herculaneum (modern Ercolano, Italy), buried under volcanic material from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE. Situated along the ancient coastline (now inland due to geological changes), it spanned over 250 meters of frontage and was one of the most opulent suburban villas in the Roman world, exemplifying elite Campanian architecture from the late Republican to early Imperial periods (ca. 1st century BCE to 1st century CE). Likely owned by Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus, Julius Caesar's father-in-law and a prominent Epicurean patron, or possibly the philosopher Philodemus, the villa is renowned for its extensive art collection, gardens, and the only surviving intact library from antiquity—over 1,800 carbonized papyrus scrolls. Its preservation under 20–30 meters of volcanic tuff has yielded unparalleled insights into Roman intellectual life, philosophy, and aesthetics.
The villa's history ties to Herculaneum's elite residents, potentially linked to the Calpurnii Pisones family, given the Epicurean content of the library and Philodemus' association with Piso. It was a sprawling estate with gardens, vineyards, and woods, positioned for sea views. Discovered accidentally in 1750 by well-diggers during the Bourbon era, under King Charles III of Naples, it sparked systematic tunnel excavations led by Swiss engineer Karl Jakob Weber from 1750 to 1765. Initial finds included papyri, mistaken for charcoal and discarded until recognized as scrolls, leading to a royal commission for their study. Excavations halted in 1765 due to local complaints about toxic gases and structural risks, and the site was backfilled, its location lost for two centuries. Rediscovery in the 1980s used Weber's maps, with open excavations in 1986–1987, 1994–1998, and 2007–2008 uncovering lower levels, a seaside pavilion, and furniture. As of 2025, about 2,800 square meters remain unexcavated due to costs, risks, and overlying modern structures.
Weber's tunnel method, though destructive, produced detailed plans published in Le Antichità di Ercolano (1757–1792), influencing neoclassical art. Modern efforts in the 1990s exposed lower floors with frescoes, while 2007 excavations revealed wooden and ivory furniture. Non-invasive techniques like multi-spectral imaging, CT scans, and phase-contrast X-ray have advanced papyri studies, revealing texts without unrolling. Conservation prioritizes stabilization over expansion due to high costs and risks.
The villa adhered to a traditional Campanian villa suburbana design but on a grand scale, with over 250 meters of frontage and four terraced levels descending to the sea. Entry through a fauces led to an atrium, followed by a peristyle with a large swimming pool (over 60 meters long), porticoes, and gardens. The main floor included reception quarters around porticoes and terraces, with bath installations and a seaside pavilion. Lower levels, uncovered in the 1990s, featured frescoed walls and additional rooms. Architectural highlights: a grand peristyle with 10 columns per side, a tablinum with an archaic Athena Promachos statue, and a circular belvedere at a promenade's end. Materials included colorful marble floors, opus reticulatum walls, and vaulted substructures for terraces.
Based on Weber's plans and modern excavations, the villa's layout
includes:
Entrance and Atrium: Narrow fauces leading to a
traditional atrium for reception, with surrounding living quarters.
First Peristyle: Colonnaded courtyard with 10 columns per side, central
water features, and gardens.
Second Peristyle: Larger area with a
massive swimming pool (longer than an Olympic pool), porticoes, and a
large tablinum featuring the Athena statue.
Library: A dedicated room
housing the papyri, packed in cases during evacuation.
Lower Levels
and Pavilion: Terraced extensions with frescoes, a seaside pavilion, and
additional reception areas.
Gardens and Promenade: Extensive grounds
with a belvedere for views.
Sculptures: 11 fountain statues of Satyrs/Amorini, life-sized bronzes like a philosopher and runners, herms of Doryphorus and Seleukos I. Decorations: Marble/mosaic floors, frescoes with architectural landscapes, ducks, deer.
Lucius Calpurnius Piso was a wealthy and literate man who patronized
the arts and sciences in his country, including Herculaneum. He managed
to assemble one of the largest libraries of his time. Subsequent owners
of the Villa dei Papyri expanded the book collection. Scholars
immediately recognized the value of the scrolls, but the technology to
unroll them was lacking. Many scholars attempted this, but their success
was limited. They often destroyed these fragile artifacts. Antonio
Piaggio, a priest at the Vatican Library, created the first scroll
unrolling machine in 1756. He developed a mechanical device that slowly
unrolled the papyrus, making it visible and relatively intact. He was
able to read only a few of the original Herculaneum documents. However,
much has changed with the advent of computers. Only today can we open
the scrolls and read their contents. Numerous scrolls could reveal the
works of ancient authors destroyed during the barbarian invasion.
The scrolls were preserved thanks to a cloud that engulfed the city
and raised temperatures to 750 degrees Fahrenheit, killing all the
inhabitants but miraculously preserving the ancient works by charring
them. Scientists have discovered a vast collection of works by the Greek
philosopher Epicurus. It is known that the owner of the villa, Lucius
Calpurnius Piso Caesonius, was a great admirer of Epicurus' philosophy.
Moreover, more than 1,800 charred scrolls were found, including works by
Philodemus, Cicilius, Statius, Chrysippus, and Colotes, as well as
Epicurus' students Lucretia, Metrodorus of Lampsacus, Polystratus, and
many others. Most of the papyri have yet to be read. The villa itself
contains an even larger portion of the library.
Unfortunately,
excavations in Herculaneum are no easy task. While Pompeii was covered
in layers of ash that were relatively easy to dig through, Herculaneum
was covered in a 30-meter-high layer of hot mud that had hardened over
many centuries. The mud preserved wooden furniture and papyrus scrolls,
but it also made archaeologists' work extremely difficult. Furthermore,
much of modern Ercolano (or Herculaneum) lies directly above the ancient
city. To uncover the ancient structures, many modern buildings,
including the Municipal Buildings, must be cleared.
However, the Villa dei Papi can be seen today in Malibu, California. American architect and entrepreneur Paul Getty reconstructed the Villa dei Papi in 1974. His villa followed the plans of Carl Weber, the original architect of the magnificent estate. The replica is not an exact copy, as Carl Weber did not have time to fully open the Villa dei Papi, but it is very close to the original in size and appearance. He also opened a museum of antiquities there.
The villa's luxury and library make it a cornerstone of classical studies, influencing neoclassicism and the Getty Villa reconstruction (1974, Malibu), which replicates its layout for the J. Paul Getty Museum. It provides insights into Epicureanism and Roman elite life, with ongoing papyri research potentially revealing lost texts.