The Balkans, encompasses Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova, and the
states of the former Yugoslavia. Croatia, Hungary, Slovenia, Slovakia
are sometimes added.
The Balkans contain charming multicultural
cities, impressive monasteries and citadels dotting the hillsides,
mighty mountains dotted with a generous dose of beautiful forests and
pleasant lakes, and last but not least a great tradition of folk music,
both as joyful and melancholic as it is. it could be - all have survived
various wars, even if they have sometimes suffered a little from the
atrocities. With hundreds of kilometers of coastline on the Adriatic and
the Black Sea, beach lovers will not be disappointed in this region
either.
The Balkans have been the frontier of many great powers;
the Roman Empire (which survived as the Byzantine Empire until the 15th
century), the Ottoman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and the
sphere of influence of the Soviet Union. Since the end of World War I,
the Western Balkans were united as Yugoslavia, until the country
collapsed in the 1990s, with a series of wars between the new states. In
the 2000s, the Balkan countries either joined the European Union or
applied for membership.
The term Balkans has acquired a
pejorative connotation, and Southeastern Europe is often substituted,
although the Balkans is more restrictive. The Balkan border is often
considered to be the maximum extent of the Ottoman Empire, namely the
border with Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Albania
Bulgaria
Bosnia and Herzegovina
North Macedonia
Moldova
Romania
Serbia
Croatia
Montenegro
Kosovo
Pridnestrovian
Moldavian Republic
1 Curtea de Argeș— an ancient Wallachian fortress .
2 Dubrovnik— a
medieval fortified city nicknamed “The Pearl of the Adriatic”
3
Makarska— the ancient gateway to the endless ocean in southern Croatia
4 Nessebar— a small seaside town filled with medieval churches
5
Ohrid— many old churches and the fortress of Tsar Samoil
6 Plitvice
Lakes— a large Croatian national park with many waterfalls
7
Zlatibor— a mountain resort in the heart of Serbia
8 Sutjeska
National Park— the last wilderness in the Balkans, located on the border
of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro .
By plane
There are many international airports in the Balkans. The
main airports in the region are (by country):
Albania: Tirana
Bosnia and Herzegovina: Sarajevo , Tuzla , Banja Luka
Bulgaria: Sofia
, Plovdiv , Varna , Burgas
Croatia: Zagreb , Split , Rijeka , Zadar ,
Dubrovnik
Kosovo: Prishtina
North Macedonia: Skopje , Ohrid
Moldova: Chișinău
Romania: Bucharest , Timisoara
Serbia: Belgrade
, Nis , Vrsac
Only the capital's airports offer many scheduled
flights throughout the year. Croatia's coastal airports are well served
by low-cost airlines in the summer, while in the winter there are only a
few flights from Zagreb and Germany. Ohrid is served mainly by seasonal
flights, and Serbian airports other than Belgrade and Niš had no
commercial flights in 2018, even though they have international status.
By boat
See ferries in the Mediterranean
Although three Balkan countries (Croatia, Bulgaria and Romania) have
joined the European Union and more are on the way, none of them, with
the exception of Croatia, have so far implemented the Schengen Treaty.
This means that, unlike most other European countries, border controls
are still a fact of life in the region – rather annoying but a joy for
those who want all those entry and exit stamps in their passports.
By train
Croatia and Romania have well-developed rail networks
and getting around by train is quite convenient. Rail travel in Bulgaria
is a bit more difficult. Elsewhere, the once adequate networks have been
neglected. While there are some amazing services and journeys, rail
travel in the other countries is not something that can be done on a
whim and requires a bit of planning, but the effort is worth it.
Train fares in each country are very cheap. International fares are also
very reasonable.
The Balkan Flexipass rail pass is valid in
Bulgaria , Greece , North Macedonia , Montenegro , Romania , Serbia and
Turkey . However, given the low price of regular tickets, this can be a
false economy.
By bus
Bus networks are extensive throughout
the Balkans and are often the quickest way to get around. More
information on the page Bus travel in the former Yugoslavia .
The cuisines of the Balkans share similarities with German , Italian
, Greek , Russian , and Middle Eastern cuisines.
The Balkans have
been divided between different nation states, languages, and religions,
but many dishes and ingredients are similar across borders. The Roman
Empire , the Ottoman Empire , and the Austro-Hungarian Empire left their
mark on Balkan cuisines.
Although Balkan cuisine has not been
internationalized in the same way as Italian or Greek cuisines, the
South Slavic and Albanian diaspora have brought their cuisine to other
parts of Europe.
Bread , meat , potatoes , and cheese are ubiquitous in the Balkans.
Pork is the most common meat, except among Muslims and Jews, who
substitute beef, lamb, and poultry.
Seafood is common in Croatia,
Montenegro and Albania.
A full meal in the Balkans may consist of
soup and bread, followed by a meat dish (grilled meat, meat pies, etc.)
and cakes or sweets for dessert.
A meze is a buffet of small
savoury dishes, of Turkish origin. Many dishes have Middle Eastern
analogues.
Ajvar is a sauce made from peppers and oil, which can
be mild or very spicy. It is usually eaten with bread.
Ćevapi or
ćevapčići is grilled minced meat and the national dish of Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
The Balkans offer a wide range of beers, wines and distilled
beverages. Muslim communities generally substitute tea and fruit juices
for alcohol. Coffee is common, in both Turkish and Italian styles.
The regional firewater of choice is rakija (the spelling varies from
country to country; despite the similarity in name, it tastes little
like Turkish raki), a sweetened strong liqueur (about 40%, and can be
higher if homemade) common to all Balkan countries. Rakija is distilled
from almost any fruit grown in the region, the most popular varieties
being plum, apricot, mulberry and grape, and is usually consumed as an
aperitif.
There are excellent local beers in each country in the
region. Wine is also widespread, with the peninsula dotted with
vineyards from one end to the other. Serbia and Bulgaria have
particularly long winemaking traditions, dating back to ancient times.
Yogurt is consumed plain and as a condiment. Ayran (sometimes
locally yoghurt ) is a light drink made from yoghurt and salt.
Another local drink is boza , a thick, sweet beer made from millet, maze
or wheat with a very low alcohol content (less than 1%) and
traditionally drunk in winter.
Low alcohol taxes, combined with a
laid-back lifestyle and liberal attitude towards alcohol consumption,
mean that even the region's smaller towns have considerable nightlife .
Belgrade, in particular, is considered the party hotspot of the region.
The term "Balkan Peninsula" was coined by the geographer Johann August Zeune in 1808. He adopted the idea of ancient geographers that the Balkan Mountains extend over the entire south-eastern European region from the Slovenian Alps to the Black Sea and have a similarly formative significance for the entire region as the Apennines for the Italian Peninsula. However, this turned out to be wrong. After the untenability of this assumption was recognized, the terms "Balkan Peninsula" or "Hemus Peninsula" met with increasing criticism. In 1893, the geographer Theobald Fischer suggested replacing the term "Balkan Peninsula" with "Southeastern European Peninsula". His proposal was only partially successful.
The term Balkan countries summarizes several countries whose
commonality consists in the fact that their current territories were for
centuries in the field of tension between Austria, Russia and the
Ottoman Empire. The resulting frequent territorial changes and
relocations or expulsions made the state appear as a representative of
changing foreign rulers who could not expect loyalty.
Almost 66
million people live together in the southeastern European states of
Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Albania, Kosovo, North Macedonia, Serbia,
Montenegro, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Slovenia (Fischer
Weltalmanach 2010). In addition, there are eight to ten million
inhabitants of the European part of Turkey, so in total there are about
75 million people living on the Balkan Peninsula.
The term "Balkan" is often used pejoratively in Western Europe with
regard to connotations such as fragmentation, conflict-prone nature
("powder keg of Europe"), backwardness, corruption and excessive
emotionality. Metternich said that the Balkans begin at the Rennweg in
Wien-Landstraße. Bismarck is said to have said that the Balkans are "not
worth the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier". Winston Churchill
described the Balkans, when it was in the hands of the Third Reich after
the German Balkan campaign, as "Europe's soft underbelly".
"Balkan states" are equated with chaos, violence, corruption,
backwardness and brutality and contrasted with "civilized" Europe. This
connotation also occurs regularly in the border areas of the region, for
example in Croatia and Romania. In the core region itself, the term is
used with fewer reservations. Thus, in 1909 a federative Balkan Republic
was created by the Social Democratic parties there, and in 1934 a Balkan
Pact was created between Turkey, Greece and Yugoslavia for the purpose
of securing power.
As a value-neutral term, the (geographically
not quite congruent) term South-Eastern Europe is becoming more and more
popular, not least for these reasons. In some of the so-called Balkan
countries, however, the term Balkan is sometimes a very positive term:
in Bulgaria, for example, Balkan is part of the name of many companies
and tourist facilities, whereby Balkan often refers to the Balkan
Mountains here, and Bulgarians maintain a fairly positive relationship
with their "Balkan identity". One reason for this is probably the fact
that the Balkan Mountains served for centuries as a refuge for various
Bulgarian freedom fighters, such as the Heiducken in the fight against
Ottoman rule. The more recent term "Western Balkans", which is mainly
used in the context of the European Union, includes the successor states
of Yugoslavia without Slovenia, but supplemented by Albania.
The
situation is different in Croatia, Hungary or Slovenia: as former
members of Austria-Hungary, many citizens of these states with a
traditionally Catholic majority feel connected to the so-called Central
European cultural circle and distance themselves from the Balkans. For
the most part, Romania, about half of whose area belonged to
Austria-Hungary and is also represented in the Balkan region, at least
by the northern Dobruja, also distances itself from the geographical
term. Greece is also mostly counted among southern Europe. Nevertheless,
Slovenia, Croatia, Hungary, Romania and Moldova as well as
Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, North Macedonia, Albania,
Greece, Bulgaria and Turkey participate in the Balkan Games, an annual
sports competition (mainly athletics).
The open coasts to the east and the patency of the north have always
made the Balkans an important bridge between Asia and Europe, but also
the scene of conflicts, wars and ethnic unrest time and again.
Numerous historical states played a significant role in the culture and
history of this region. These included the Roman and Byzantine Empires,
as well as later the Ottoman Empire, the Republic of Venice and
Austria-Hungary. Due to the widespread Orthodox faith there, Russia also
often regarded the Balkans as its area of influence, while pursuing
territorial interests as well as other countries mentioned.
Since
this area finally fell under Ottoman rule in the 15th century, the
south-eastern European internal border between the
Hungarian-Venetian-dominated Catholic area and the Balkans, politically
and religiously oriented towards Constantinople, also strengthened. More
than half of the inhabitants of all Balkan countries adhere to one of
the Orthodox churches. However, in the west of the Balkan Peninsula,
Roman Catholic Christianity dominates.
There are also many
Muslims living between Catholics and Orthodox, mainly Slavic, Albanian
and Turkish Muslims, a total of about a quarter of all the inhabitants
of the peninsula. Among Muslims, Sufi brotherhoods are very common. The
largest brotherhoods are the Halvetiyye and Bektaschiyye. In addition,
the Qādirīya, Rifai and Naqshbandīya also have many Tekkes on the Balkan
Peninsula. The Qādirīya Order spread from Anatolia in the 17th century,
where it was founded in the 15th century by the poet and mystic Eşref
Rumi (d. 1469) was introduced.
During the Second World War and
the Holocaust, Jews were persecuted and murdered in the Balkans, with
the exception of Bulgaria and Albania. The few survivors emigrated to
the newly proclaimed State of Israel in 1948. Apart from Turkey, no
Balkan country still has a significant Jewish–Sephardic or
Jewish–Ashkenazi minority today.
Around 70-34 thousand years BC, the territory of the Balkans was
inhabited by Neanderthals. Their remains were found in the areas of
Croatian Krapina, Greek Peloponnese, and in the Bulgarian cave
Bacho-Kiro.
Around 34 thousand BC, Neanderthals were replaced by
modern humans (Homo sapiens). Their oldest remains were found in
Romania.
During the Neolithic era, the Balkans became the most important
cultural center of Europe, from where technologies spread even to the
territory of modern-day Netherlands (Linear Pottery Culture).
Around 4000 BC, the first wave of Indo-Europeans penetrated the Balkans
from the territory of the Ukrainian steppes (Cernavoda Culture).
In the Bronze Age, the Mycenaean civilization was formed at the southern end of the Balkans, which was ended by the Dorian invasion.
In the 4th century BC, the time of Macedonian hegemony came.
Then, by the beginning of our era, the Balkans became part of the Roman
Empire, where its most important centers were located, such as Solinus,
where the residence of Emperor Diocletian was located, and
Constantinople, which claimed the role of the Second Rome.
The Balkans in the era of the great migration of peoples
After the
division of the Roman Empire, the entire Balkan Peninsula, with the
exception of Dalmatia, became part of Byzantium. At the beginning of the
era of the great migration of peoples, the Balkan provinces of the
empire were invaded by the Ostrogoths. In 378, they won the battle of
Adrianople, all of Greece was devastated. Under Theodoric the Great,
Dalmatia was part of the Ostrogothic kingdom. In 555, Justinian I,
having defeated the Ostrogoths, brought the northwestern Balkans under
the rule of Constantinople. In the 560s, the Avar Khaganate was formed
in Dacia, which became a new threat to Byzantium. From the beginning of
the 6th century, numerous Slavic tribes began to penetrate the Balkans
from across the Danube. During the reign of Justinian I (527-565), they
annually invaded the empire. From the end of the 6th century, they often
raided together with the Avars, and in 626, together with them, they
besieged Constantinople.
In the 7th century, the Constantinople emperors, formally owning the
Balkans, practically lost control over a significant part of their
territory.
The Slavs, mixing with the indigenous population,
settled over most of the peninsula. Emperor Heraclius I (610-641) did
not oppose the Slavic expansion into the Balkans; moreover, he counted
on the Slavs to be his allies in the fight against the Avar Khaganate.
He allowed the Croats to settle in Pannonia and on the lands along the
Dalmatian coast, and the Serbs in the interior of the peninsula. Another
intertribal union of Slavs settled, possibly as federates of the empire,
in Moesia.
In the middle of the 7th century, the Turkic tribes of Khan Asparukh,
the Bulgars (proto—Bulgars), came from the Northern Black Sea region to
Dobrudja, oppressed by the Khazars. The Slavic tribes became his allies
in his war against Byzantium in 680. Their support helped Asparukh
successfully resist the Khazars in the east and successfully fight the
Byzantines in the south. The weakness of the neighbors, Byzantium and
the Avar Khaganate, contributed to the formation of the Asparukh state
in the area between the Danube and the Stara Planina mountain range to
the Iskar River and the capital in Pliska.
After a series of
internal crises in the 8th century, the Bulgarian state expanded its
borders during the reign of Khan Krum (803-814). At that time, the Avars
suffered defeat after defeat from the Franks of Charlemagne. Taking
advantage of this, Krum, for his part, struck them. Thus, through the
joint efforts of the Franks and Bulgarians, the Avar Khaganate was
defeated, and its territory was divided between the victors. The border
between the Franks and the Bulgarians ran along the Middle Danube. Then
Krum started a war with Byzantium. In 811, Emperor Nikephoros I set his
goal of destroying the Bulgarian state and was close to achieving it.
After a successful siege, the Bulgarian capital was captured and
destroyed, and the garrison was slaughtered. Krum raised the entire
Bulgarian population to fight the invader, and Nikephoros I was forced
to retreat. Retreating, almost the entire Byzantine army perished. The
emperor himself died. In 814, Krum's army was already at the walls of
Constantinople. Krum's sudden death helped Leo V in 815 to force the
Bulgarians to conclude a peace treaty for thirty years.
Under
Khan Presian (836-852), as a result of another Bulgarian-Byzantine war,
Bulgaria, having conquered Southern Albania and Macedonia, gained access
to the Adriatic and Aegean Seas. The Byzantine possessions in the
Balkans were divided into 3 isolated parts: Northern Albania, Hellas and
territories near Constantinople.
In the western Balkans in the 7th-9th centuries, there were several
Croatian and Serbian territorial-political entities. Nominally, all
Serbian territories were part of Byzantium, but in practice they were
independent.
One part of the Croats found itself dependent on the
Franks, while the other recognized the authority of Byzantium. In 799,
the Croats repelled the Frankish invasion, but later signed a peace
treaty with them, recognizing their suzerainty. In 812, Byzantium agreed
to the suzerainty of the Franks over Croatia. Under Prince Trpimir I
(845-864), the unification of Croatian lands into a single state began,
under whom the Croats acquired significant regional political weight.
Trpimir I tried, albeit unsuccessfully, to subjugate the Byzantine
cities on the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia. Byzantium saw Croatia as a
potential ally in its wars with the Bulgarians.
The expansion of
the Bulgarian khans forced the Serbian rulers to unite. Raska became the
center of consolidation of their tribes. In 839, its ruler Vlastimir
(825-860) defeated the Bulgarian Khan Presian. Having then managed to
subjugate some of the other Serbian coastal principalities, he became
the de facto founder of the first Serbian state. At the end of the 9th
century, Raska weakened due to civil strife and in the 10th century fell
under the rule of the First Bulgarian Kingdom.
In 933, an
uprising began in the west of the Bulgarian Kingdom, as a result of
which Serbia (with the support of Byzantium) gained independence from
Bulgaria. During the reign of Vlastimir's great-grandson Časlav
(933-950), Serbia, being a vassal of Byzantium, strengthened itself and
significantly expanded its territory, but after his death it finally
disintegrated into many separate principalities, most of which were
immediately annexed by Byzantium.
The heirs of the Vlastimir
dynasty continued to rule in Duklja, which became the main principality
of the Serbs. Emperor Basil II proposed to the ruler of Duklja Ivan
Vladimir (990-1016) to join the anti-Bulgarian alliance and go to war
against Tsar Samuel of Bulgaria. In response to this, Samuel attacked
Duklja in 997, defeated Ivan Vladimir and annexed Bosnia and Serbia to
his possessions.
The successful wars of Simeon I the Great (893-927) against the
Byzantine Empire, the Serbs and the Hungarians made the First Bulgarian
Kingdom the most powerful state in all of Eastern Europe. Simeon was the
first of the Bulgarian rulers to adopt the title of Tsar, equal to the
title of Emperor, in 913 (the second such case after Charlemagne). Under
him, the Bulgarian Kingdom reached the apogee of its power. He had plans
to ascend the throne of Constantinople. The struggle with Byzantium
after Simeon's death was completed by his son Peter I (927-969). By
concluding an "eternal peace" with Peter in 927, Constantinople thereby
officially recognized the imperial dignity of the Bulgarian ruler and
the patriarchal status of the head of the Bulgarian Church.
In
966, Emperor Nicephorus II Phocas negotiated an alliance against the
Bulgarians with the Kievan Prince Svyatoslav. In 969, Svyatoslav
captured the northeastern part of Bulgaria. His war against Bulgaria
turned into a war against Byzantium. After a series of clashes,
Svyatoslav forced John I Tzimiskes to make peace on his terms. This war
greatly weakened the Bulgarian state. Peter I abdicated. The Bulgarian
throne was taken by his son Boris II, but he (along with his brother)
was captured by the Byzantines, and eastern Bulgaria came under direct
Byzantine rule.
In Western Bulgaria, Byzantium was unable to
immediately establish its rule. In 981, the Bulgarians put up extremely
stubborn resistance to Emperor Basil II. In 986, led by Tsar Samuel,
they destroyed almost the entire army of Emperor Basil II in the Battle
of Trajan's Gate, and he himself miraculously escaped capture.
Having won this battle, Tsar Samuel was able to return most of the
territory of Bulgaria. He even took the title of Tsar. But the war
continued, and in 1014, Basil II completely defeated the Bulgarians.
Samuel died, and his successors were unable to continue the resistance,
and by 1018 Bulgaria was completely conquered by Byzantium. After this
war, Emperor Basil II received the nickname "Bulgar-Slayer".
Tomislav I (910-928) created a powerful state, the territory of which
included most of the territory of modern Croatia, with the exception of
Istria and Dubrovnik, and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Croatia had a merchant
fleet, which allowed it to trade throughout the Adriatic. Having won a
number of important victories over the Hungarians, the Croats helped to
stop their expansion into Western Europe. In 925, Tomislav I became the
first Croatian king. Tomislav's victory over the army of Simeon I in 927
in the Battle of the Bosnian Hills greatly increased the prestige of the
young state and its king.
Medieval Croatia reached the peak of
its power under King Petar Krešimir IV (1058-1074). Under subsequent
rulers, the power of the Croatian state began to gradually weaken. In
the first half of the 1080s, the Croatian lands experienced an invasion
of the Normans. The Trpimirovic dynasty ended with Stepan II in 1091.
In 1097, the King of Hungary, Kalman the Scribe, defeated the Croats
and eliminated Croatia's independence. In 1102, the Croatian nobility
recognized the union with Hungary.
The uprising of 1185 restored Bulgarian independence. Its leaders were the brothers Peter IV and Ivan Asen I, co-rulers of the Second Bulgarian Empire. Kaloyan, who ruled Bulgaria from 1197 to 1207, the younger brother of his predecessors on the throne, took advantage of the weakening of imperial power and numerous rebellions to resume the war with Byzantium in 1199. The Polovtsians actually fought on the side of the Bulgarians. Byzantium was forced to come to terms with the secession of Bulgaria, and in 1202 Emperor Alexius III recognized the independence of Bulgaria. In a short time, Bulgaria again became the strongest state on the Balkan Peninsula. In November 1204, Pope Innocent III recognized Kaloyan as king, and the Bulgarian Patriarchate again became independent from Constantinople.
In 1204, the Crusaders captured Byzantium and created the Latin
Empire on its ruins. They considered themselves the heirs of Byzantium
and, accordingly, all the territories that were subordinate to it.
Therefore, they rejected the alliance proposed by Kaloyan to the first
Latin Emperor Baldwin. Then Kaloyan acted as the initiator of the Greek
uprising against the Latins. In 1205, the Greek uprising engulfed all of
Thrace. The Latins suffered a crushing defeat, the emperor himself was
captured and executed by Kaloyan. The surviving crusaders fled to Europe
with the hope that the Pope would declare Kaloyan an enemy of
Christianity and proclaim a new crusade against him. But Kaloyan's power
was so great that the Pope sent him a letter warning him of a new attack
by the crusaders from the West and advising him to make peace.
In
1206, the knights were defeated again. At the same time, Kaloyan
devastated Thrace and resettled the Greeks to the Danube - he called
himself a Roman-slayer and said that he was taking revenge for the
bloody reprisals against the Bulgarians by Emperor Basil II the
Bulgar-Slayer. At the same time, the Bulgarians, whether they wanted it
or not, saved the Nicaean Empire of Theodore Laskaris - the center of
the future Greek state - from defeat by the crusaders.
During the reign of Ivan Asen II (1218-1241), the Second Bulgarian
Empire reached its greatest power, comparable to the power of Bulgaria
during the time of Simeon I the Great. By concluding dynastic marriages
and constantly waging wars with the Crusaders, Hungarians and Greeks, he
expanded his state so that by the end of his reign he controlled almost
the entire Balkan Peninsula.
After the death of Ivan Asen II,
Bulgaria steadily weakened, the Kingdom of Vidin (1280) and the
Principality of Dobrudja (1322) separated from it. Byzantium recaptured
Macedonia and Northern Thrace, the Hungarians Belgrade, and Wallachia
gradually fell away. In 1242, Bulgaria was subjected to the Mongol
invasion and was forced to pay tribute to the Golden Horde. By the end
of the 13th century, Bulgaria had weakened so much that in 1299, one of
the sons of the Mongol Khan briefly became the Tsar of Bulgaria.
In 1396, Bulgaria was conquered by the Ottomans and ceased to exist as
an independent state.
Prince Stefan Vojislav of Duklja (1040-1052) led an anti-Byzantine
rebellion and was able to restore independence to some Serbian lands. He
then expanded his power to Herzegovina and southern Dalmatia. Raška also
recognized his authority. Unlike his predecessor Časlav, who was
oriented towards Byzantium, he relied on Rome and the Normans of
southern Italy. Prince Mihailo Vojislavljević was crowned King of the
Serbs in 1077. At the end of the 11th century, Duklja established
control over the internal Serbian regions, but at the beginning of the
12th century, the Kingdom of Duklja fell apart.
In 1166, Stefan
Nemanja (1170-1196) became the prince of Raška, and its strengthening
began again. At first, he remained a loyal vassal of Byzantium, but
after the death of Emperor Manuel I in 1180, he began a struggle for
independence and unification of the Serbian lands. As a result of
several military campaigns, by the end of the 12th century, most of the
lands inhabited by the Serbs became part of a single state. Dubrovnik
merchants received the right to free trade in Serbia from Stefan
Nemanja, and this contributed to the rise of its economy.
In
1190, the Byzantine Empire recognized the independence of Serbia. In
1217, Stefan Nemanja's son Stefan the First-Crowned was crowned King of
the Serbs by Pope Honorius III, and in 1219, Archbishop Sava I of Serbia
crowned Stefan the Orthodox Tsar of the Serbs.
In 1267, Stefan
Milutin appeared on the political scene. Under him, Serbia's affiliation
with the Orthodox world was finally consolidated, Catholic influence was
practically eliminated, and the Bogomils were expelled from the country,
and the process of organizing state administration and the royal court
according to the Byzantine model began. Milutin managed to significantly
expand the territory of the state. Under his son Stefan Dečanski, the
victory over the Bulgarians at the Battle of Velbužd in 1330 put an end
to Bulgarian hegemony in the Balkans.
The reign of Stefan Dušan
(1331-1355) saw the heyday of the medieval Serbian state. As a result of
his military campaigns, Serbia became the largest state in Southeastern
Europe. In 1346, Stefan Dušan was crowned king of the Serbs and Greeks.
After his death, the Serbian state once again disintegrated. Part of the
Greek lands again came under Byzantine rule, while the rest formed
semi-independent principalities. The unity of the Serbian lands was then
maintained almost exclusively by the unity of the Orthodox Church,
represented by the Patriarchate of Peć.
In the 14th century, the Turks spread their influence to the peninsula. In 1356, they moved their capital to Edirne. In 1389, the epochal Battle of Kosovo Field took place, when the Turks defeated the Serbian army. Then they established their capital Istanbul in the Balkans (1453) and dominated there until the beginning of the 20th century. Together with the Turks, Islam appeared in the Balkans, which was adopted by the Albanians and Bosnians. The local population adopted Islam in order to achieve a privileged position, a reduction in taxes, which was granted to Muslims. The Turkish sultans recruited their elite troops of Janissaries from the local Christian population.
In the 19th century, the Balkans became the arena of the Russo-Turkish wars, as a result of which the independent states of Greece (1821), Romania (1877), and Serbia (1878) were formed. At the beginning of the 19th century, most of the Balkan peoples were in vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire, and this delayed their economic development.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. This gave
rise to the Bosnian crisis, which threatened to escalate into a major
European war.
In the spring of 1912, with the active diplomatic
participation of Russia, a number of bilateral military-political
treaties were concluded between Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece and Montenegro
- the so-called Balkan Union was formed, in which Bulgaria and Serbia
played a leading role. Russia, intending to use this union in its
confrontation with Austria-Hungary, took on the role of arbitrator in
it. The member countries of the union themselves pursued the goal of
finally liberating the Balkans from Ottoman rule and, thereby, expanding
their borders. At the same time, in an effort to expand their states at
the expense of the Balkan possessions of the Ottoman Empire, the
participants in the union partially laid claim to the same territories.
Bulgaria and Greece - to Thrace; Greece, Serbia and Bulgaria - to
Macedonia; Montenegro and Serbia - to the Adriatic ports. The Bulgarians
sought to gain access to the Aegean Sea by annexing Thessaloniki and
Western Thrace, the Serbs - to the Adriatic Sea at the expense of
Albania.
In October 1912, the countries of the Balkan Union,
contrary to Russia's aspirations, began a war against Turkey. One of its
episodes was an anti-Turkish Albanian uprising, as a result of which
Albania declared its independence. The war ended on May 30, 1913, with
the signing of a peace treaty in London. The Ottoman presence in Europe
was practically reduced to nothing, but the countries of the union had
to carry out the division of the territories conquered from Turkey
themselves, without foreign mediation. With the support of the great
powers, only the state of Albania was created within the borders that
they determined for it.
Macedonia was divided between Greece,
Serbia and Bulgaria. Bulgaria received access to the Aegean Sea, while
Serbia did not receive access to the Adriatic. The border of Macedonia's
division remained controversial. None of the participants in the Balkan
Union was fully satisfied with the division that had taken place. And
the very emergence of another state in the Balkans - Albania - did not
suit Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece or Montenegro.
The diplomats of
Germany and Austria-Hungary inclined the Serbian king to war with Greece
and Bulgaria in order to gain access to the sea, and pushed the
Bulgarian tsar to annex Macedonia. At the same time, the Bulgarian
government insisted on strict observance of all points of the
Serbian-Bulgarian Union Treaty of 1912, with which the entire Balkan
Union began, while Serbia agreed with the German and Austrian diplomats
and began to prepare for a new war. Greece, dissatisfied with the
strengthening of Bulgaria, concluded an anti-Bulgarian treaty with
Serbia on the second day after the signing of the London Treaty. The
situation was aggravated by the revanchism of the Young Turks, who
wanted to regain their lost territories. Russia called for a peaceful
settlement of the issue and proposed convening a conference at which new
borders would be established.
The Balkan Union collapsed when, on
June 29, 1913, Bulgarian troops launched an offensive on their section
of the Macedonian border without declaring war. At the start of this
war, Serbia had no special plans for war, while Bulgaria had such plans.
After the war began, the governments of Serbia and Greece decided to
rely on diplomacy to restrain the Bulgarian troops - to accuse Bulgaria
of violating the alliance treaties and thereby isolate it.
George
Buchanan stated about this war that had begun: "Bulgaria was responsible
for opening hostilities, but Greece and Serbia fully deserved the
accusation of deliberate provocation." On July 14, Romania also joined
the war against Bulgaria, wanting to change the border line in Southern
Dobruja. The Sultan gave no orders to begin military action, but the
Turkish front was opened by the leader of the Young Turks.
On
July 29, the Bulgarian government, realizing the hopelessness of the
situation, signed an armistice, and on August 10, a peace treaty. Having
lost the war, Bulgaria lost almost all the territories captured during
the First Balkan War (and also Southern Dobruja), although it retained
access to the Aegean Sea. Serbia and Greece expanded their territories,
but Serbia was left without access to the sea.
Turkey did not
participate in the signing of the Bucharest Peace Treaty. On September
29, a treaty was privately signed in Istanbul between Bulgaria and the
Ottoman Empire, establishing the Bulgarian-Turkish border and peace
between them. Turkey received back part of Eastern Thrace.
In 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand in Sarajevo, the First World War begins, which ends for the Balkans with the collapse of Austria-Hungary and the emergence of Yugoslavia.
At the same time, the national liberation struggle turns into chauvinistic nationalism, pro-fascist forces appear: the Croatian Ustashe of Pavelić, the Romanian Iron Guard. In 1935, the "monarchofascist dictatorship" of Tsar Boris is established. All this made a number of Balkan countries allies of the Third Reich in the Second World War. The pro-German Independent State of Croatia is formed, Albania becomes a protectorate of fascist Italy.
And at the same time in 1940-41. Greece won the first victory of the anti-fascist coalition over the Axis powers, and the resistance movement in Yugoslavia and Greece became one of the most powerful in Europe.
After the war, most of the Balkans (except Greece) fell into the
Soviet zone of influence. Authoritarian communist regimes emerged:
Ceausescu in Romania, Tito in Yugoslavia, and Enver Hoxha in Albania.
Greece was torn apart by the civil war of 1946-1949 and the military
dictatorship of 1967-1974 (the Black Colonels).
However, a few
years later, a conflict occurred between the Yugoslav leader Tito and
Stalin, and then Albania reoriented itself toward China.
In the post-Soviet period, interethnic tensions are intensifying,
which is expressed in a number of wars (the Croatian, Bosnian and Kosovo
wars, the conflict in Macedonia) and in the subsequent parade of
sovereignties: new entities appear: the Republic of Macedonia (1991),
Montenegro (2006), Kosovo (2008)
On March 24, 1999, NATO began a
military operation on the territory of the Federal Republic of
Yugoslavia.
The peninsula has an area of about 500,000 square kilometers,
including the offshore islands. It is bordered to the west by the
Adriatic Sea, to the southwest by the Ionian Sea, to the southeast by
the Aegean Sea and the Sea of Marmara, and to the east by the Black Sea.
To the north, towards the interior of the European continent, there
is no geographically distinct boundary line. As a rule, the Danube and
Sava rivers are taken as the northern border of the Balkan Peninsula.
There are different opinions regarding the demarcation in the extreme
northwest and on the lower reaches of the Danube. Thus, either the Kupa
(German: Kulpa), or the Una (both tributaries of the Sava) is considered
the northwest border. In the first case, central Croatia or the area of
the former Croatian military border with the Balkans is counted, in the
second case it is not. Another common definition sees the Gulf of
Trieste and the Ljubljana Valley as the northwest boundary of the Balkan
Peninsula, which then runs over the Sava and Danube to the Black Sea.
The Kupa River forms the natural border between Slovenia and Croatia
in the southeast, the Sava separates Croatia and Bosnia, and the Danube,
the second largest European river (after the Volga), forms a natural
border between Bulgaria, Serbia and Romania.
Sometimes Wallachia
and Moldova are also added to the Balkan concept (whereby there is an
overlap between the geographical and the historical-political Balkan
concept). Rarely, the direct air-line between Trieste and Odessa is also
used as a demarcation.
The Balkan Peninsula has a pronounced relief and, due to the existing
mountain obstacles, has only a few natural transport routes. Only the
strategically outstanding Morava-Vardar furrow runs through the central
Balkan Peninsula between the Aegean Sea and the Danube in its entirety.
Parallel to the southwest coast of the mountainous peninsula, the
Dinaric Mountains form a largely karstified, difficult-to-access
mountain wall, which represents both a striking climatic and cultural
divide with the Mediterranean region.
A juxtaposition of high
mountains and basin landscapes characterizes the interior of the Balkan
Peninsula. The basins are created either as Poljen (Croatian, Serbian,
Bosnian and Slovenian for "field") in the karst (for example Middle
Dalmatian-Herzegovinian Poljenstufe) or tectonic depressions such as in
Kosovo (Rrafsh i Dukagjinit / Metochien, Amselfeld), North Macedonia
(basins of Skopje, Kumanovo, Bitola and Tetovo) as well as the
lake-rich, Pelagonian basins (Ohrid, Prespa, Dojran and Ioannina).
Plains are formed in the Albanian lowlands, the Slavonian (Sava)
lowlands, as well as the vast alluvial areas of the Danube. As an
ancient cultural region, the cities were mostly founded in
geographically favored places of the coasts and rivers. The ancient
urban culture originated from the political-geographical and cultural
conditions of Greece and was systematically spread by the Romans to the
other areas of the Balkan Peninsula. An urban renewal outside the
continuity of the commercial seaside towns takes place after the
migration of peoples, but only with the emergence of the Ottomans, who
were able to systematically integrate the central areas of the Balkan
Peninsula in particular into their economic system.
The Balkan Peninsula is a pronounced mountainous region. Young Alpine mountains stretch from northwest to southeast (Dinaric-Hellenidic mountain arc) and belong to the fold mountain belt surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. Crystalline masses, which are geologically older and composed of impermeable granites and shales as well as limestones, are formed by the Rhodopes as well as Pirin, Rila and the Balkan Mountains. The highest peaks are found in the Rila (Musala 2925 m), Olympus (Mytikas 2917 m) and Pirin (Wichren 2911 m). The heavily karstified Dinarids (Jezerca 2694 m) and Hellenids (in Pindos: Smolikas 2637 m) are present on the coasts of the Mediterranean Sea and thus form pronounced climatic and cultural sheds.
Both the west coast (Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Montenegro, Albania, Greece) and the east coast of the Balkan Peninsula
(Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece) are heavily rugged and divided into
numerous islands and peninsulas. The richly structured coastal region of
Dalmatia is formed as a canal coast, the Greek Aegean coast as a Rias
coast, the coasts to the Black Sea and those in Albania are then formed
as lowland coasts.
Numerous more or less fertile basins in the
form of karst or poljen (Grahovo, Nikšić) lie between the mostly bare,
sparsely populated mountains in the Dinaric Karst. Only the striking
large tectonically arranged basins of Kosovo and the basins in North
Macedonia (Pelagonian Basin) with their large lakes of tertiary origin
(Lake Ohrid, Lake Prespa) form economically and geographically
significant habitats that are densely populated.
The hydrological systems drain to varying degrees into the adjacent
seas. A large part of the flowing waters belong to the catchment area of
the Black Sea. The Adriatic catchment area is poor in surface
watercourses (in the Dinarides only Cetina, Neretva and Morača), whereas
the Adriatic and Aegean rivers are drained by Drin, Nestos, Struma,
Vardar and Mariza. The most important of the numerous tributaries of the
Danube and Sava are Kupa, Bosna, Drina, Morava and Iskar.
Hydrologically belonging to three catchment areas, the Adriatic, Aegean
and Black Sea, the water–rich Danube tributaries, which – with the
exception of the lowland stream of the Sava - lead through gorges and
canyons (Drina, Tara, Iskar), are of particular importance. The
Carpathian breakthrough of the Danube in the Iron Gate was a significant
obstacle to navigation until the 20th century. The rivers draining to
the Adriatic are of secondary importance, with the exception of Neretva
and Morača, which break through the threshold of the High Dinarides in
deep canyons. The larger mountain river systems in Albania and Greece
(Drin, Vardar and Nestos) flow in the lower reaches through wide
alluvial lowlands.
The three largest lakes of the peninsula are
Lake Skadar (maximum size 570 km2), Lake Ohrid (362 km2) and Lake Prespa
(273 km2), all of which are located in the southwestern part of the
Balkans.
The Balkan Peninsula is located at the transition from the
Mediterranean to the continental climatic zone. Surrounded by the sea on
two sides, the oceanicity is rapidly decreasing from the coastal edge to
the inland due to the mountains exposed to the west wind zone on the
coast in the west of the peninsula. Thus, the climate is characterized
by a stronger continentality and snowy winters even at a shorter
distance from the sea coast.
The solar climates of the Balkan
Peninsula, which have changed more hygrically and ventilatorically due
to the mountain systems, are characterized by local, mesoscale and
macroscale wind systems that strongly modify the climate. These include
the lee waves caused by the topography, such as the cold Bora and the
warm Föhn, which are particularly effective in the mountains, as well as
the seasonal macroscale wind systems of the Košava, Meltemi and the
Scirocco caused by differences in the air pressure gradients.
The
mountains of the Balkans are divided climatically into humid-temperate,
submediterranean and Mediterranean, as well as subhumid-continental
types. Edaphic deviations of the general types occur in karst areas in
otherwise humid climates. In addition, karst mountains line up from the
Julian Alps to the Peloponnese. Thus, climatic and edaphic factors are
more combined than in the Alps, Pyrenees or Carpathians. Karst mountains
of the northwest are generally humid, in the southeast semihumid to
semiarid.
The vegetation of large ecosystems (phytogeographic territories
or vegetation belts) is ecologically, chorologically and
floristically very uniform in terms of development history. Due to
the relief and the relationships that result from the location,
especially to the seas, a vegetation division differentiated by the
climatic factors and the aspects of the natural space takes place
within these plant kingdoms.
Phytogeographically, the Balkan
Peninsula is initially a part of the Holarctic flora kingdom. It can
be further classified into circumboreal, Mediterranean and Pontic
regions. The circumboreal (or submediterranean) central Balkan
Peninsula can be further divided into two flora regions, which are
described as the Illyrian and Moesian flora region after the Roman
provinces Illyricum and Moesia. The Illyrian west is basophilic and
oceanic, the Moesian east is acidophilic and continental. The richly
indented Dalmatian coast, parts of southern Albania as well as the
coasts of Greece and the Peloponnese belong to the Mediterranean
flora region. The coast of Dalmatia belongs to the Adriatic province
of the Mediterranean vegetation zone. The Epirotic and Aegean coasts
with the Greek island groups are part of the eastern Mediterranean
flora region. A part of Thrace already belongs to the Pontic
vegetation zone. Thus, floristic principles are prescribed.
Differences result from the mixture of the horo elements of
individual areas, which in turn depend on natural-spatial conditions
and the history of vegetation.
In particular, colline stages
are distinguished between east and west: Illyria is the center of
mesophilic beech forests, which dominate submontane to subalpine,
while in Moesia subalpine spruce forms boreal forests; the oaks in
the east (Quercus frainetto, Zerreiche [Q. cerris]) are replaced in
the west by humid oak-hornbeam forests (Quercus petrea, Carpinus
betulus). The Balkan region is enriched by many (tertiary) species
typical only for it, such as the Greek maple (Acer heldreichii), the
Serbian spruce (Picea omorika), the common horse chestnut (Aesculus
hippocastanum), Corylus colurna, Pinus peuce, Pinus heldreichii,
Ramonda serbica or the Neumayer pitcher fruit Amphoricarpos
neumayerianus.
Due to the pronounced relief, the diverse
topography and the resulting climatic diversity, as well as due to
the subtropical location and a concomitant (in comparison with the
rest of Europe higher) climatic advantage of the Earth's past, by
far the most diverse and species-rich vegetation of the European
continent has developed on the Balkan Peninsula. The Balkan
Peninsula alone is home to over 160 species of woody plants and more
than 7000 cormophytes, of which 3000 are endemic species alone.
Already Turrill (1929) noted 6340 species on the Balkan Peninsula.
In comparison with the 10,500 species listed in the Flora Europaea
(1964-1993), the Balkan Peninsula thus plays a key role in the
European vegetation history and, as an endemic center, also ranks as
a biodiversity hotspot. The following conditions must be stated for
this:
a flora that contains many tertiary species that were
able to survive the ice Ages here;
paleoendemic relics;
Isolation of land masses, islands and mountain groups. Changes in
sea level. Fragmentation, isolation and migration of species,
formation of new habitats;
autonomous evolutionary centers close
to other flora regions;
Human influence through the destruction
and change of the natural land cover, the creation of new habitats
and the introduction of new species.
The genesis of the
Balkan flora occurred during tertiary, glacial and postglacial
phases. Today, ancient Mesozoic representatives no longer occur, as
in the floras of East Asia or Argentina. Nevertheless, the basic
stock of forest flora in particular has been known since the
Cretaceous, in particular the oaks (quercus), beeches (fagus),
chestnuts (Castanea), alders (alnus) and willows (Salix). The more
thermophilic tertiary flora was richer in tropical elements than
today, where only a small number of relict species (female hair fern
[Adiantum capillus-veneris]), genera (yams [Dioscorea]) and families
(Gesneraceae) have survived. Non-tropical tertiary forms, on the
other hand, are abundantly represented, such as plane trees
(Platanus), horse chestnuts (Aesculus hippocastanum), broad-leaved
(Scopolia), Sibiraea, Thelygonum, Serbian spruce (Picea omorika),
Pinus peuce, Forsythia europaea and the common lilac (Syringa
vulgaris). Due to the isolated position – the closest relatives are
mostly found in East Asia or the Near East – and the heterogeneous
phytogeographic genesis, all paleoendemic tertiary relics are
ecologically and horologically very differentiated representatives
of different vegetation geographical units. The evolution of the
Mediterranean mountain flora has also been taking place since the
Tertiary, independent of arcto-Alpine influences.
Greece, as
the most endemic sub-region, has 1100 endemic species. The endemism
is mainly due to the high specification of the Illyrian-Balkan
floricultural province. The comparatively higher biodiversity
compared to the Alps and Pyrenees, due to greater petrographic
heterogeneity than the Pyrenees and the embedding between flora
provinces against the Alps, makes the complex dinarides the
conspicuous endemic center with high species potential.
The
Illyrian province has four endemic genera: Petteria, Halacsya,
Haberlea, Jankaea. Endemics are Picea omorika (Serbia, Bosnia),
Pinus peuce (mountains between 41°-43° N), Primula deorum
(Bulgaria), Saxifraga ferdinandi-coburgii, Petteria ramentacea
(Dalmatia, Herzegovina, Montenegro, northern Albania), Oxytropis
prenja, Greek maple (Acer heldreichii), Forsythia europaea (northern
Albania, Kosovo) , Rock Moltkie (Moltkia petraea), Wulfenia
baldaccii (Montenegro, northern Albania), Haberlea rhodopensis
(Bulgaria, northeastern Greece), Ramonda serbica, Jankaea
heldreichii (Olympus), Neumayer pitcher fruit (Amphoricarpos
neumayerianus), Cicerbita pancicii, Lilium jankae and Dioscorea
balcanica (Montenegro, northern Albania). Relict species of the
Illyrian-Balkan province are the European hop beech (Ostrya
carpinifolia), Juglans regia, Syringa vulgaris, Tree hazel (Corylus
colurna), Common horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) etc.
The following countries are located entirely or partially on the Balkan Peninsula: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, Croatia, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Serbia. The European part of Turkey, a small part of Romania (Northern Dobruja) and – if you consider the Karst as the northwest border – parts of Slovenia and Italy (former province of Trieste) also belong to the Balkan Peninsula.
The Balkan Peninsula is populated primarily by Albanians, Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Greeks, Croats, Macedonians, Romanians (Wallachians, Aromanians), Serbs, Slovenes and Turks. In addition, the Roma form a large ethnic minority in several Balkan countries, as did the Sephardic Jews in the past and in Romania and Croatia predominantly Ashkenazi Jews, who today only form a significant minority in Turkey. Armenians, Banat Swabians, Danube Swabians, Lipovans, Magyars, Transylvanian Saxons, Slovaks, Tatars, Czechs and Circassians are also among the minorities in the Balkans.