Language: Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian
Currency: Convertible Mark (BAM)
Calling Code: 387
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a Southeast European
federal state. Geographically, it consists of the region of Bosnia
in the north – which occupies about 80 percent of the national
territory – and the smaller region of Herzegovina in the south. The
political subdivisions of the state are the Federation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, the Republika Srpska and the Brčko District as a
special administrative region. The capital and largest city of the
state is Sarajevo; other major cities are Banja Luka, Tuzla, Zenica,
Bijeljina and Mostar.
The territory of the state is located
to the east of the Adriatic Sea on the Balkan Peninsula and is
almost completely located in the Dinaric Mountains. Neighboring
states are Croatia to the north and west, Serbia and Montenegro to
the east and southeast. In addition, the state has an approximately
25-kilometer coastal strip on the Adriatic Sea near Neum in the Neum
Corridor. The Bosnian-Herzegovinian population was a good 3.3
million in 2020 (see Bosnians and Herzegovinians).
The state
emerged in its current form from the Dayton Agreement (1995) and,
according to this, is the legal successor of the Republic of Bosnia
and Herzegovina, which was founded immediately after a referendum at
the beginning of 1992 and was the only internationally recognized of
a total of four state entities on the territory of Bosnia and
Herzegovina during the Bosnian War. The Treaty of Dayton ended the
war in the country and created a unified, but highly decentralized
(federalist) state. Today, Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of the
two entities Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (majority
populated by Bosniaks and Bosnian Croats) and Republika Srpska
(majority populated by Bosnian Serbs). The Brčko Special
Administrative Region was subsequently created from shares of the
pre-war large municipality of Brčko belonging to both entities and
today functions as a condominium of both entities, but manages
itself independently.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is a member of
the Central European Free Trade Agreement, the United Nations, the
Organization of Islamic Cooperation (observer status), the Council
of Europe, a participant of the Organization for Security and
Cooperation in Europe and the Cooperation Council for South-Eastern
Europe. Furthermore, the state has been an official NATO candidate
country since 2010. At the summit of the EU member States in
Brussels on December 15, 2022, Bosnia and Herzegovina was officially
granted the status of candidate country for accession to the
European Union. On 12. In March 2024, the EU Commission recommended
the opening of accession negotiations. On 21 March 2024, at the EU
Summit in Brussels, the Heads of State and Government of the
European Union agreed to open accession negotiations with Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Sarajevo is the capital of the
country and one of the most unusual cities in Europe. East and west,
Islam and Christianity are inextricably intertwined here, and tall
minarets and authentic Muslim neighborhoods grow against the backdrop of
a luxurious Austrian secession. In addition to the color and wonderful
architecture in Sarajevo, you can see numerous evidences of the Bosnian
War — now, however, more and more museum, because, despite the almost
four-year siege and terrible destruction of the early 1990s, modern
Sarajevo is a fully restored and actively visited by tourists city.
Banja Luka is the second largest city
in the country, the capital of the Republic of Srpska. Banja Luka is not
one of those places where you need to go specifically, but if you are
traveling in the north of Bosnia, it is worth spending half a day here,
visiting curious monuments of Orthodox architecture, an old Turkish
fortress and museums, including a good art collection and the Museum of
the history of the Srpska Republic. Banja Luka is also a natural stop
halfway between Zagreb and Sarajevo and the best starting point for
traveling around the Bosnian Krajina region.
Visegrad is a tiny
town in the far eastern corner of the country. Despite the difficult
logistics, tourists come here quite often: mainly in order to see the
medieval Visegrad Bridge (Mehmed Pasha Bridge), noted not only by
UNESCO, but also by the novel "The Bridge on the Drina" by Ivo Andrich,
for which the author received the Nobel Prize in Literature. However, it
was not these two circumstances that contributed to the true promotion
of Visegrad, but the Emir of Kusturica, who decided to build an "old
town" here from scratch and was very successful in this. Visegrad stands
almost on the Serbian border in close proximity to the Shargan Eight,
the best narrow—gauge mountain railway in the Balkans, which is of
independent tourist interest.
Mostar is
a symbol of Bosnia and its essence; a city where peoples who once fought
with each other live on different banks of the river, and an old Turkish
bridge restored after the war connects these two worlds. Due to its
proximity to the Adriatic coast and UNESCO monument status, Mostar is
the most visited city in the country. There is really something to see
in it: old Muslim quarters, Moorish architecture of the early 20th
century, modern Croatian temples, and all this against the background of
mountains near other interesting corners of Herzegovina, including the
towns of Blagai and Pochitel.
Travnik is an ideal small town,
located, moreover, not far from Sarajevo, so it is convenient to go here
for one day. The cities of Bosnia and Herzegovina are by definition
multinational, but Travnik is a rare place where the environment is
predominantly Bosnian, and the culture is therefore Muslim. For 150
years, from 1699 to 1850, the city was the capital of the Bosnian region
of the Ottoman Empire. It is good to wander through the old quarters,
looking at mosques, clock towers and medieval tombstones, after which
you can admire the beautiful panorama by climbing to the old Turkish
fortress, standing against the background of mountains.
Jajce is a small town in the mountains, an hour
and a half drive from Banja Luka, one of the ancient capitals of Bosnia.
The center of local tourism, where residents of the country go to look
at the beautiful 20-meter waterfall, the old fortress and the general
flavor of the historical city, complemented by the events of modern
history: during the Second World War, the center of the partisan
movement was located in the city, to which a good museum is now
dedicated. You can also see mosques with wooden minarets typical of
rural Bosnia in Yajce, and a medieval Christian monastery is located
nearby.
Visa and rules of stay
Bosnia is not part of the Schengen area.
With a Russian or Ukrainian passport, you can stay in the country for up
to 30 days within 2 months, with a passport from any of the EU
countries, as well as other European countries — up to 90 days within
six months. A Bosnian visa is also not needed for those who have a
multiple-entry Schengen visa or a residence permit from EU countries,
but in this case the allowed period of stay is no more than 30 days
continuously and no more than 90 days for six months. Citizens of
Belarus or, for example, Kazakhstan will need a visa to visit Bosnia.
If you are traveling from Split to Dubrovnik, you will cross a short
stretch of the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina facing the sea in
Neum. No one needs a visa to cross it, there is border control only on
major roads. If you intend to turn north into Bosnia here, make sure to
drive through the border crossing and get the necessary stamps. For
example, you can cross the border in the town of Metkovich, where,
moreover, there is something to see.
Passport control takes place
in a very relaxed mode. Bosnian border guards are known for almost not
checking bus passengers and sometimes not putting entry stamps, relying
on their Croatian or Serbian colleagues. On buses, drivers collect
passports, take them to the booth, and then bring them back — there is
no communication with the border guards.
Check-in: within 48
hours upon arrival if you plan to stay in the country for more than
three days. All hotels take a copy of your passport or ID card and then
arrange registration without any participation on your part. If you are
not staying at a hotel, you should, in theory, go to the police and
report yourself, but there are no known cases in history when
registration from tourists was required or checked.
By plane
There are four passenger airports in Bosnia — Sarajevo, Banja Luka,
Mostar and Tuzla. Of these, some reasonable connections happen only in
Sarajevo, WizzAir has chosen Tuzla, and the other two airports do not
accept flights every day and have no transport significance. You can get
to the north of the country through Zagreb, to the east through
Belgrade, to the south through Split, but it is better to fly to
Sarajevo by plane, since the road from any neighboring airport will take
at least 7-8 hours.
By train
As of the end of 2017, there are
no international trains in Bosnia. If they appear, it will be only from
Croatia, where Bosnia has exits to Zagreb (via Banja Luka) and Ploce
(via Mostar). If you are traveling by train, it is most logical to get
to Zagreb, from where you can take a bus to Banja Luka, or to Split,
where you can take a bus to Mostar. You can also take a Croatian train
to Slavonski Brod station, cross the river there (not necessarily wade),
and now you are in Bosnia. From Serbia, the nearest railway stations to
the border are in Sremska Mitrovica and Užice.
By bus
Like all
the countries of the Balkan region, Bosnia is connected by bus with
Central Europe — Austria, Germany, Holland, Denmark. These "guest worker
buses" will take you from, for example, Munich to any city in the
country in about a day. Traveling from neighboring countries is much
more pleasant and faster. As a starting point, it is most convenient to
choose Belgrade, which has regular bus service to all cities of Bosnia
and, in particular, to the Republic of Srpska. Another convenient
check—in is from the southwest, through Mostar, from where buses run
every 2-3 hours to Croatian Split and, somewhat less frequently, to
Croatian Dubrovnik. From Zagreb, you can get to Banja Luka relatively
quickly. The eastern border of the country is the most mountainous and
therefore the most remote. There are direct buses from many cities in
Bosnia to the Montenegrin coast and even to Albania, but they take an
unimaginably long time: for example, the journey from Podgorica to
Sarajevo takes 8 hours.
Modern buses operate on international
lines, usually with air conditioning and Wi-Fi.
By car
There
are dozens of roads and border crossings at your service, mostly around
the clock, but you need to keep in mind that everything is much slower
inside Bosnia than outside, so if you are coming from the north, it is
worth driving as much as possible through Croatia, where both autobahns
run along the Bosnian border, and only then stop by to Bosnia itself.
From Belgrade to the north of Bosnia, they also usually go through
Croatia, and to Sarajevo — through Uzhice and Visegrad.
Moving around Bosnia by public transport requires the same skills as
everywhere else in the Balkans. There are no normal schedules, nor route
planners, but there is enough transport, and it is more convenient, for
example, Russian. There are few trains, they rarely run. However, if you
have the opportunity to go by fast train ("Talgo") — do not neglect it,
because such a train is much more pleasant than a bus, but it goes about
the same amount and costs almost cheaper.
Public transport in
Bosnia is inexpensive. You will pay 12-15 marks for 100 km of travel.
All roads are very picturesque, try to drive along them during the day.
For a better orientation in space, it is useful to know the words
redvoznje (schedule), polasci (departure) and dolasci (arrival).
By train
The mountainous nature of the area does not contribute to
the development of railways, and the war has severely crippled those
that were. In fact, there is only one line in Bosnia, Zagreb-Banja
Luka-Sarajevo-Mostar-Ploce, and due to some disagreements between the
countries, passenger traffic on it is cut off along the Croatian border.
There is also a side branch to Tuzla. All other railways that you can
see on the map either do not have passenger service or do not exist in
nature.
Strangely enough, even this tiny network in the country
managed to split into two parts. Željeznice Federacije Bosne i
Hercegovine (ŽFBH) operates in the south of Bosnia and in the Sarajevo
area, and Željeznice Republike Srpske (ŽRS) operates in the north. There
is no practical difference between them, that is, at any station you
will see only one ticket office selling all possible tickets, and even
the sites of the two railways are similar: they are well translated into
English, but otherwise they are an example of antediluvian web design
and contain timetables (ŽFBH, ŽRS), which you can view only a list of
the selected station. Each road has its own schedules: for example, if
you need a train to Mostar, see the website of the railways of the
Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and if to Tuzla — the Republika
Srpska. Some trains meet in both.
Trains in Bosnia can be counted
on the fingers. The so-called "express trains" run twice a day: brand
new Talgo trains from Sarajevo to Mostar-Chaplina (south) and
Zenica-Doboj-Banja Luka (north). They drive three times slower than the
manufacturers expected, but inside everything is at the European level:
comfortable chairs, sockets and even drinks. You can connect to Wi-Fi,
which, however, does not work. On some sections, there are additional
commuter trains consisting of a pair of wagons divided into seated
compartments: the usual Balkan version is slow and joyless.
Like
their Russian colleagues, Bosnian railway workers operate new trains in
a very peculiar way: all but one door is blocked, and a conductor stands
in the remaining one and checks tickets. Thus, it is impossible to get
on a fast train without a ticket. In a slow one, most likely, you can
take a ticket on the train. There are ticket offices at all major
stations (strictly speaking, ticket offices are the only thing there at
all), they open at least an hour before the train departs. All the train
stations in Bosnia are completely empty, and few people travel by train
either.
By bus
There are no bus schedules in nature.
Everything that can be found on the Internet has little relation to
reality. The websites of individual carriers may be a relatively
reliable source, but they only show their flights, and even then not all
of them. At bus stations, it is better to turn to the information window
than to understand the schedule hanging on the wall, which, moreover, is
not always relevant. The largest bus carrier is Centrotrans. On his
website, you can find out the schedules of many buses departing from
Sarajevo. If you want to travel within the country, look for the
websites of local carriers or rely on intuition.
Schedules
usually consist of many sections. In the Bosnian part of the country,
routes are local (općinske linije, also gradske and pregradske),
cantonal (kantonalne linije — within one canton), federal (federalne
linije — within the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina) and
international (međunarodne linije). The latter include buses to the
Republic of Srpska. In the Serbian part it is simpler, there they are
limited to the classification of suburb—intercity. There is an opinion
that there is no transport between the Bosnian and Serbian parts of the
country, but this is not the case. The internal division of the country
creates only one difficulty: in some cities there are two bus stations,
each of which serves buses to its part of the country. However, there
are also a lot of nuances here, so it is sometimes impossible to guess
which bus station you need.
If you still need to plan something,
count on the fact that there will be some kind of transport between
neighboring cities every 1-2 hours, the same applies to the main
highways leading from Sarajevo to different parts of the country. Things
are much worse on the periphery. Many Bosnian buses, especially local
ones, have a tendency to run several times early in the morning and in
the evening, sometimes even in the middle of the day to the end of
school, and the rest of the time to take long breaks. If you are waiting
for a bus at an intermediate stop where there is no bus station, be
patient and believe in the best, because there will be no timetable
here, and usually there is no one to even ask. It is better to study the
schedule of the nearest bus station in advance to know approximately
when the bus will be.
There are bus stations (autobuska stanica,
in the Croatian regions autobusni kolodvor) in almost every city. They
are open from early morning to late evening, sometimes around the clock,
and sell tickets as well as provide information. The waiting rooms are
tiny but clean; they almost always have a cafe where you can sit
comfortably. Apron control is in effect at larger bus stations. Tickets
must always be purchased at the ticket office (biletarnica). Luggage
storage is available at almost every bus station under the garderobna
sign. The payment is hourly, usually 1 mark per hour, that is, it is
unprofitable to leave things for a long time.
Tickets are usually
sold without seats, but for a certain departure time. Buses rarely run
empty, sometimes they are packed, although a situation where it is
impossible to leave at all is unlikely. If you want to make yourself
comfortable, come in advance. The baggage fee (1 mark) is charged by the
driver upon boarding.
The buses are relatively new and quite
comfortable, many have air conditioning and even Wi-Fi. However, they
drive slowly, which is facilitated by mountain roads and the habit
common to the countries of the former Yugoslavia of making long stops
every 1.5-2 hours, during which drivers drink coffee. You can follow
their example, since there is at least one cafe at each bus station, and
the situation there is no worse than in any other cafe in the same city.
Usually, fast food outlets where you can have a snack are clustered
around bus stations. If you travel a long distance, the travel time
becomes indecently long: for example, the 230 km from Sarajevo to Banja
Luka bus covers more than 5 hours. There are no express trains in
Bosnia, and even international buses do not deny themselves the pleasure
of stopping in every town along the way.
By car
All roads in
Bosnia are two-lane and mountainous. Two small sections of the four—lane
autobahn are located in the vicinity of Sarajevo, one leads to Zenica
(60 km), and the other leads the first 30 km towards Mostar. The
autobahn is paid, the fare to Zenica costs 6 marks (2017).
The
condition of the main roads is good, there are almost no potholes, and
the asphalt in the cities is also quite decent. There are a lot of
police on the roads. The traffic is slow, do not count on an average
speed above 60 km / h, since the roads are either mountainous and
winding, or go through all possible settlements where the speed drops to
a minimum.
Gasoline is cheap by European standards, 1.7-1.8 marks
per liter (2017).
Serbo-Croatian used to be the common language of the state. In view
of the civil war of the 1990s and the establishment of a Bosniak nation
that is of Islamic faith and makes up the majority of the population in
the state, it was obvious from this point of view to stand out from the
Serbo-Croatian.
The main phraseologisms and expressions for a
tourist are the same in any language variant: "good morning" (dobro
jutro), "good afternoon" (dobar dan), "good evening" (dobra večer),
"goodbye" (do viđenja), "please/nothing to thank" (molim/nema na cemu)
and "thank you" (hvala).
The South Slavic languages may be
difficult to learn due to their complex grammar (7 cases). There may
also be a lack of pronunciation for foreigners, since comparatively many
sharp consonants have to be pronounced side by side. Fortunately, one
speaks exactly as it is written. But you can get by relatively well with
English and German practically all over the country. Due to the many war
refugees who lived in German-speaking areas, even a surprising number of
young people can speak German well.
German studies at the Bosnian
universities maintains a high level of language proficiency and has a
lively influx. As everywhere in the world, the level of foreign
languages in the countryside is much lower than in the cities, but even
here you can often find someone who speaks a few chunks of German or
English. English is the most important foreign language at school and is
often spoken by the younger generation, not least because of the
American films, which are hardly dubbed in Serbo-Croatian or even
Bosnian. Many older people, former guest workers and war refugees still
speak broken German. In the summer, many Bosnians from abroad from
Germany, Switzerland, Austria, etc. still come to their home country to
spend the holidays there.
From a political point of view, the
language is a very complicated matter in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the
official language regulation is a major obstacle in the peace process
for the preservation of the holistic state. According to the Dayton
Peace Agreement (practically the provisional – currently valid
constitution), there are three constituent peoples in Bosnia and
Herzegovina and thus also three languages: Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian.
The differences between these three South Slavic language variants are
small and an understanding among each other is easily possible. Most
likely, it could be compared with the difference between English and
American.
In the Federation, Bosniaks and Croats use the Latin
script, while in the Republika Srpska Cyrillic is used.
There are
tendencies of the individual population groups to underline their
national identity by the respective language variant. For example, the
Croats in the west of the country use the variant of the written
language used in Croatia. The Bosniaks and Croats use the so-called
"Ijekavica", the Serbs also use it until now, although in the Republika
Srpska there are efforts to use the Serbian written language, the
so-called "Ekavica" (although people used to speak "Ijekavian" until
then). That is, a word like, for example, milch means "mleko" in Serbian
(resp. mleko in Cyrillic letters) and in Croatian/Bosnian "mlijeko" (in
Latin letters).
The Bosnian variant is relatively cumbersome to
implement in everyday life, especially since it was standardized
relatively late and was only used by the Bosnian upper class at the time
of Ottoman rule. On the other hand, many so-called "Turzisms" have
become established, such as djezva = coffee kettle, čilim (spr. chilim)
= carpet.
Despite the similarity of the languages, the right to
use one's own mother tongue is taken very seriously and is of great
political significance. All official papers must therefore be translated
into all three language variants, textbooks are printed in all
languages, etc.
The country's currency, the Bosnian convertible mark, is a legacy of
the era when the world did not yet have the euro, and in 1998,
immediately after the war, the exchange rate was, without hesitation,
tied to the German mark. The Bosnian stamp is designated as BAM or KM,
and in oral speech — simply as a mark (eng. marks). After the abolition
of German marks, its exchange rate is pegged to the euro, €1 = 1.95583
marks.
Bosnian money comes in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100
and 200 marks, as well as coins in 1, 2, 5 marks and 5, 10, 20, 50
pfennig (another reference to the old German currency!) The price level
does not quite correspond to the boundary between coins and banknotes:
for example, a 5—mark coin is 2.5 euros: the amount for which you can
not only drink coffee with a cake, but also eat. It is better to always
have coins with you, because with small purchases, even with a 10-mark
bill, there are problems, but bills of 100 and 200 marks cause the owner
a lot of problems.
Currency exchange: in each city, usually in
the market area, there is at least one exchanger (menjačnica), where
euros, dollars, Croatian kuna, Serbian dinars and 5-7 other popular
currencies are exchanged. The euro exchange rate is always official, but
it is changed with a commission of 0.5-1%. Exchangers operate 7 days a
week, usually in the same mode as the markets. The euro is used quite
widely in Bosnia. Many things can be paid in euros at the rate of 1:2,
in tourist places they sometimes give change in euros when there are not
enough cash stamps at the cash desk. However, if you are going outside
of Mostar and Sarajevo, be sure to stock up on local currency. However,
it is not necessary to accumulate it in large quantities, since the
Bosnian mark, even if it is convertible, is one of those currencies that
it is almost impossible to exchange outside the country.
Bank
cards are used only to a limited extent. There is at least one ATM in
any city. Payment terminals are found in shops and hotels, as well as in
some restaurants. On the contrary, fast food and pastry shops, as well
as ticket offices at stations and bus stations accept payment only in
cash.
Grocery supermarkets are usually open from 7 to 21-22, on Sundays
from 8 to 13-14 hours, although in large cities there are always shops
open on Sunday until the evening. The most popular network is Konzum.
Most often you will come across small shops from the home goods series:
they have everything you need, but there is no cooking, for example.
Large supermarkets, like shopping malls in Bosnia, are not very popular,
and if they are, they are located somewhere on the outskirts. In the
center of a small town, you can often find something like a department
store with a minimal assortment of clothes, shoes and household goods.
The market is an important part of any Bosnian city. The markets are
open every day, from 6-7 am to 15-16 pm. In Mostar and Sarajevo, the
markets are heavily tourist-oriented. There are almost no tourists in
other cities, so the markets are the real ones. There are always a lot
of local vegetables and fruits on them: do not miss the huge bags of
sweet peppers, and somewhere in Herzegovina and tangerines. Meat and
dairy products are also sold. In addition, there is a huge flea market
in any market where you can find some colorful oriental goods: for
example, copper Turks are very common in the Bosnian part of the
country.
Bosnia is an inexpensive country. If you do not use a taxi, the daily transportation costs will not exceed 20 marks. A hearty snack in fast food — 5-8 marks, lunch or dinner in a restaurant — 15-20 marks, including alcohol. A cup of coffee costs 1-2 marks. You can stay in a hotel for 50-60 marks per person or 70-80 marks for two. Many attractions charge a small entrance fee, usually within 5 marks.
The Bosnian cuisine is very rich and varied. The main ingredients are
grilled meat, cevapcici, burek, salads and a variety of Austrian and
oriental sweet dishes. However, there are now also – especially in the
cities – many international restaurants.
The Bosnian cuisine is
very tasty and mostly natural. Fast food almost does not exist at all.
People in Bosnia like to eat a lot. As a tourist, you can safely settle
in any place, even if the sanitary facilities leave much to be desired
in many places. In the old towns you should definitely visit one of the
numerous cevabdzinicas. There are original cevapcici made from beef and
lamb meat as well as sudzukice - grilled sausages made from lamb meat.
There are also excellent pastry shops, which often still bake according
to the old Austrian tradition.
The coffee (kava) is Turkish mocha
or espresso in many places. But even here you can now get cappuccino.
Filter coffee is completely unknown. There are very good Bosnian beers,
especially Preminger from Bihać, which has reached the 4th place in a
European beer competition.
You can go out well in the larger cities of Bosnia-Herzegovina, there are countless cafés and discos in Sarajevo and other cities. In the summer, the city population seems to almost double due to the seasonal homecoming. So the places are very lively and young people are frolicking everywhere in the street cafés.
Bosnia-Herzegovina's cities offer many accommodation options, such as
Banja Luka, Trebinje, Bihać, Livno and last but not least Sarajevo. Some
private homeowners offer rooms and hospitable treatment at affordable
prices.
In Bihać there are now some hotels that have opened
again. But the private accommodations are also recommended. Hospitality
is very important here.
Trebinje has worked its way up to a
tourist stronghold in recent years. This is due to the fact that this
beautiful town is located in the three-country corner of Croatia
(Dubrovnik 25 km) and Montenegro (Herceg Novi 45 km) and is a perfect
starting point for holidays and yet is many times cheaper than the
coastal resorts of Dubrovnik and Herceg Novi and although the city also
has a lot to offer culturally. Trebinje is also called the city of
honey, wine and plane trees. It is definitely worth a visit.
There are universities in Banja Luka, Mostar, Zenica, Tuzla and Sarajevo, some with a long tradition, for example, the University of Sarajevo was founded in 1531. Although universities also have a focus, for example Tuzla, once the largest industrial city in the Balkans, has a focus on engineering sciences and medicine.
Due to the still existing mine danger, the German Foreign Office
advises against leaving the streets. Furthermore, night driving through
the country is not without danger. According to UN data, up to 4 million
landmines have been laid. In addition, there is a large number of
unexploded ordnance, so-called UXO (engl. for unexploded ordnance).
Information on this can be found here Mineaction.org .
Before
hiking or the like, you should definitely seek the advice of locals.
However, one should take the advice with caution, as there are always
accidents with mines in which locals are involved. However, one has to
expect almost everywhere that one is discouraged from hiking. For safety
reasons, you should always stay on paved paths.
Although the European Health Insurance Card is valid, it may have to
be exchanged for a local treatment certificate on site, which can be
difficult in the short term. Some German health insurance companies
therefore recommend to apply for a foreign health certificate in
advance. Austrians obtain a foreign care certificate.
Medical
care is sufficient, but not to the usual standard everywhere. The
University hospital in Sarajevo is certainly the first choice. Medicines
for personal needs should be carried with you. A foreign health
insurance with return protection is recommended.
Vaccinations: as
in Germany, protection against tetanus (tetanus), diphtheria (whooping
cough), polio (poliomyelitis) and hepatitis A is recommended, for stays
of more than four weeks or special exposure (trekking tours, etc.) also
against hepatitis B, rabies and TBE (tick-borne encephalitis).
No special expectations are placed on tourists in this regard. As a
foreigner, however, you should not get involved in nationalist
discussions at all. Since there are three faiths represented in Bosnia,
one should also be very restrained in matters of faith. The wounds of
the war have not yet healed and there is hardly anyone who does not have
a victim of the war to complain about in the family.
The ideas of
morality and decency are very high in Bosnia and Herzegovina. You will
hardly see that people kiss in public or exchange other caresses. Even
the consumption of alcohol on the open road is not prohibited, but it is
absolutely unusual among locals. The inhabitants of Bosnia and
Herzegovina are mostly very hospitable, but the danger of fraudsters
must also be explicitly pointed out here. Often people beg, although
this is not allowed and is punished. It is at the discretion of each
individual to give something. If you are invited as a foreigner, it is
customary to take off your shoes before entering the apartment.
The larger towns are home to strong minorities of Bosnian-Herzegovinian
Sinti and Roma, who often live in miserable conditions. In addition,
there are about 500,000 internally displaced persons and war wounded,
who are often not kept by the barely existing social network.
There are three mobile operators in Bosnia: BH Telecom, m:tel and HT
eronet, despite their obvious ethnicity, they work throughout the
country, although they are usually better in their home regions than in
others. SIM cards are sold freely without presenting any documents at
newsstands, supermarkets, gas stations and other similar places. All
operators have gigabyte packages, the prices are about the same as in
neighboring countries: a tourist package for 10-14 days costs 20 marks
(2023), but you can catch better deals.
Bosnia is not part of the
EU free roaming zone, but is part of a similar zone from non-EU Balkan
countries (region Zapadnog Balkan): this allows you to use a Serbian or,
for example, a Northern Macedonian SIM card in Bosnia, and a Bosnian one
in these countries (operators' tariffs usually specify separately which
part of the Internet package is available within this region), but in
practice this does not always work, in some cases SIM cards may simply
not be found the network is in another country.
Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two historical regions, but they have no relation to the current division into entities: Bosnia and Herzegovina. The country name Bosnia is derived from the river Bosna, which originates near the capital Sarajevo. The name Herzegovina goes back to the ruler title Herceg = Duke (Hercegovina = duchy) used by Stjepan Vukčić Kosača.
The region was settled by people very early. Archaeological finds
testify to the first advanced civilizations in Bosnia. The Butmir
culture is a Neolithic archaeological culture in the region of Ilidža.
It had a unique pottery and is one of the most well-studied cultures in
Europe from about 5500 to 4500 BC. The best-researched settlement of the
Butmir culture is located on the outskirts of the Okolište district of
the Visoko municipality. Numerous excavations between 1966 and 2008 have
made it possible to completely record and document a settlement of the
Butmir culture in its development over 500 years (5200 to 4700 BC). The
recovered items are now in the National Museum of Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
Later, the Illyrians were the formative inhabitants
in the territory of present-day Bosnia and Herzegovina and the first
about whom historical information is available. In ancient times, Bosnia
was long part of the Roman Empire in the province of Illyria. The
Illyrians settled the western half of the Balkan Peninsula and thus also
Bosnia in the Bronze Age (around 1200-1100 BC). Archaeological research
has shown that the tribes were mainly engaged in cattle breeding and
less arable farming. Also mining (silver) was already carried out in
Bosnia by the Illyrians.
In the 7th century the region was settled by Slavic peoples. Already in the 9th century, Bosnia was first mentioned in a document as a region (Banat). A kingdom emerged from the Banat of Bosnia, which can only be understood as a consolidated territory from the 12th century. At the latest in the period shortly before 1250, the princely house Kotromanić prevailed.
In 1463 Bosnia was conquered by the Ottomans. Due to the immigration of the Ottomans to Bosnia, many mosques were built and the Christian population increasingly converted to Islam, which led to Bosnia enjoying a special status in the Ottoman Empire due to the higher proportion of the Muslim population. in 1527, the Eyalet of Bosnia was founded, which included the territory of the present-day state of Bosnia and Herzegovina, parts of Croatia, Montenegro, as well as the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which ultimately resulted in the Pashalik of Bosnia around 1580. The Ottoman power was broken and shaken off again by the mass uprising of the Bosnian population in 1876/78.
In 1878, after the victory of the Russians over the Ottomans, the Congress of Berlin placed the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austro-Hungarian administration; in addition, Austria-Hungary received garrison rights in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar. The formal annexation by the Habsburg dual Monarchy in 1908 triggered the Bosnian annexation crisis. Self-employment efforts also had a hard time because of the ethnic and religious mixture. The resulting assassination attempt on the Austro-Hungarian heir to the throne, Franz Ferdinand, in Sarajevo in 1914 by the Bosnian Serb student Gavrilo Princip triggered the July crisis that eventually led to the First World War. Therefore, it is considered an essential trigger of the First World War. After the end of the war, the country became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (from 1929: the Kingdom of Yugoslavia).
Immediately after the First World War, Bosnia and Herzegovina became
part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. The newly founded South Slavic
multi-ethnic state was ruled by the Serbian king Petar I (Petar
Karađorđević). In the entire state itself, the political mood was tense
from the mid-1920s onwards, because Slovenes and Croats in particular
were striving for their own political independence, while Belgrade
wanted the newly founded state to be dominated by Serbs. The situation
was similar in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but here it was between the
Bosnian Muslims, Croats and Serbs.
The state was characterized by
centralism; the idea of autonomy with regard to non-Serbian ethnicities
and non-Christian religions remained largely suppressed; ethnic and
denominational or religious tensions remained and in some cases
intensified. The most influential Bosnian politician during this period
was the president of the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, Mehmed Spaho
(1883-1939).
In 1939, an agreement (sporazum) was reached between
Serbian and Croatian representatives, which provided for the
establishment of a broad Croatian autonomy, including parts of Bosnia
and Herzegovina. In the spring of 1941, during the Second World War, the
country was occupied by troops of the German Empire and Italy. Bosnia
and Herzegovina became a part of the fascist vassal state called the
Independent State of Croatia.
The successful resistance of the
Yugoslav partisans led by Josip Broz Tito against the occupiers and
their allies culminated in the AVNOJ decisions of November 29, 1943 in
Jajce, in which the foundation stone was laid for a new federation of
South Slavic peoples under the leadership of the Communist Party of
Yugoslavia KPJ.
After the Second World War, with the founding of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, a federal state was created with the six constituent republics of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Macedonia and Serbia with the Autonomous Provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. The Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the third largest sub-republic in terms of area. From an economic point of view, Bosnia and Herzegovina in Yugoslavia was behind the republics of Slovenia, Croatia and Serbia, as it was mainly designed for the industrial sector and partly for agricultural operations, in contrast to Slovenia and Croatia, which were mainly designed for tourism.
After the 14th Congress of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990, the Communist Party of Yugoslavia was dissolved. This effectively ended the Communist Party's rule in Yugoslavia after 45 years. Slovenian and Croatian politicians proposed a reorganization of the state. They wanted to eliminate socialism and establish a Western-oriented democratic government. Since all the proposals were rejected by the Serbian side and a system was propagated on the principle of "one man – one vote", there were heated disputes during the congress. That is why Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence in 1991, so that Yugoslavia now consisted only of the constituent republics of Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 29 February/1 March 1992, in a referendum in Bosnia and Herzegovina that was largely boycotted by the Serbian population, 99.4% of the voters voted for state sovereignty, with a turnout of 63%. Thus the state declared on 3. In March 1992, he resigned from the Yugoslav State Union and gained independence under the official name of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Republika Bosna i Hercegovina) within the borders of the previous constituent republic. International recognition took place on April 17, 1992, but the Serbian representatives did not recognize independence and founded the "Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina" (Srpska republika Bosna i Hercegovina) in the territories under their control, which is the predecessor of today's Republika Srpska. The Bosnian war between the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH), the Army of the Serbian Republic (VRS), the Croatian Defense Council (HVO) and other actors, which is now breaking out and has been going on for more than three years, claimed a total of about 100,000 deaths.
At the end of the Bosnian War, the Dayton Treaty, initialed in 1995
in Dayton (USA) and signed in Paris on December 14, created the now
federally organized State of Bosnia and Herzegovina, consisting of the
two entities Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska.
However, the domestic political situation was still determined by the
consequences of the war and the ongoing conflicts between the three
ethnic groups (see International Conflicts of the successor states of
Yugoslavia). Although there are usually no conflicts between ordinary
Bosnian citizens, the state is still in a political crisis, as there are
different ideas about the future of the state. Bosniak politicians in
particular would like to re-centralize the entire state and integrate it
into the European Union in the medium term; Croatian representatives are
advocating for a new right to vote and partly for the creation of a
third (Croatian) entity, and the representatives of the Republika Srpska
are calling for further decentralization of the state or even the
secession of the Republika Srpska. None of the three models has so far
found a political majority in the state as a whole.
In February
2014, violent protests took place first in Tuzla and later in numerous
other cities of the state, some of which were directed against the poor
economic situation and corruption in politics and administration.
Serbian politicians in Banja Luka and Belgrade are promoting
divisive tendencies that could break up the fragile confederation. Four
authors wrote in March 2022, this even makes a new war between the
ethnic groups seem possible.
On 12 October 2022, the EU
Commission recommended that Bosnia and Herzegovina be granted candidate
status.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula and is characterized in large parts by a wooded low mountain landscape, with the highest mountains reaching heights of almost 2400 meters above sea level. Part of the mountainous country, especially in the western parts of the state and Herzegovina, is karstified. The surface water produced here does not enter the large river systems, but seeps away for the most part. In the south as well as in the northern Sava lowland there are also flatter regions that are used for agriculture. Also in the south is the 20-kilometer-long Adriatic coast near Neum.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a total of 1538 kilometers long external
border with its three neighboring states. This is omitted
932
Kilometers on Croatia, which surrounds the state in an arc to the north
and west; this border is part of the EU external border,
357
Kilometers on Serbia in the east and
249 Kilometers on Montenegro in
the southeast.
The only access to the sea is the Neum Corridor, a
strip of territory that interrupts the Croatian national territory at a
width of about 7.5 kilometers. The southern part of Croatia with the
city of Dubrovnik was originally accessible by land only via the
territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina or from the east from Montenegro.
Since mid-2022, the Pelješac Bridge has been a road link between the two
parts of Croatia, bypassing the Neum corridor.
Due to its central
location, Bosnia and Herzegovina is the only former Yugoslav
sub-republic that is surrounded exclusively by other former
sub-republics.
The highest areas of the country are located in the southeast, on the historical border between Bosnia and Herzegovina. The peak of the Maglić Massif, located south of Foča on the Montenegrin border, is the highest point at 2386 meters. The rest of the country is mainly characterized by low mountain landscape.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in the transition area between the Mediterranean and continental climate. Winters can get very cold and temperatures up to -20 degrees Celsius are not uncommon. The summers are mostly very hot and dry due to the location of the country.
The state can be divided into three landscape zones according to
climatic zones.
The Pannonian Plain
On the northern border,
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a share in the Pannonian Plain, which extends
here in the area of the Sava Lowland.
The Dinaric mountain region
The Dinaric mountain region, also called "Bosnian Dinarides", extends
from the southeast of the country across the central region to the
northwest. This landscape is characterized by numerous mountains, which
are less karstified, but covered with forest surfaces. Cities such as
Sarajevo, Zenica and Bihać are located in this landscape zone, among
others. These areas are usually very warm in summer with up to 35 °C and
cold in winter, whereby the temperature can also drop to -15 °C and a
lot of snow can fall.
The Adriatic coastal region
Herzegovina
is mostly part of the Adriatic coastal region. Herzegovina, which is
characterized by Mediterranean influences, consists mainly of karst or
karst mountain ranges. The Neretva River, which flows from north-eastern
Herzegovina through Mostar towards the Adriatic coast, is the largest
and most famous of this region.
The most important rivers of the country are the Sava and Drina,
which border Bosnia and Herzegovina in the north and east, as well as
the Bosna, which originates inland and flows into the Sava. Almost the
entire area of Bosnia belongs to the catchment area of the Sava or the
Black Sea, while the rivers of Herzegovina – partly underground – drain
into the Adriatic Sea.
The valleys of the larger rivers of Bosnia
extend almost exclusively in the north-south direction, which is
important for the settlement and transport history of the country. Among
the larger rivers are the Una and Sana, the Vrbas and the Neretva. Apart
from the Sava River on the border with Croatia, no river in Bosnia and
Herzegovina is navigable.
Bosnia and Herzegovina is located in
the Blue Heart of Europe.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has few
significant lakes. Most of the large still waters have been artificially
impounded. There are large reservoirs at Drina (e.g. Lake Zvornik),
Neretva (Jablaničko jezero), Vrbas and Trebišnjica (Bilećko jezero). The
Modračko jezero near Lukavac in the canton of Tuzla is also a reservoir.
Only a small fifth of the national area is suitable for arable farming. These areas are located mainly along the Sava, on the lower reaches of the Neretva and in the Poljen of Herzegovina.
The animal and plant world of the country is rich in species and diverse. The flora and fauna of the country benefits from the low population density and uninhabited areas. Around 60 percent of the area of Bosnia and Herzegovina is forested, especially the mountains are very wooded. Due to the difficult accessibility, nature is also under little threat. Thus, it was possible to preserve the habitat of many rare animals and plants.
Many endangered plant species have a habitat in the high mountains of
the country. In the Sutjeska National Park on the river of the same name
is the Perućica virgin forest - one of the largest still preserved in
Europe. In the area of the Dinaric Mountains, an altitude of 500 to 1000
meters is considered a low zone. Oak and beech forests are typical in
this area. At an altitude of 1500 meters there is a beech, spruce, fir
and pine forest. A tree that is found in almost all the mountains of the
country is the Scots pine. A mixture of all these tree species can be
found when wooded areas start at a low altitude and continue upwards. In
this case we are talking about an Illyrian Florentine province.
You can find mountain plants such as fireweed, thyme and catweed in all
areas of the high zone. They are like the classic alpine flora found on
the mountains. A special feature are the sinkholes created by cave
incursions. Typical plants of a colder mountain landscape can be found
on the large areas of the sinkholes, while plants typical of the
Mediterranean grow on the edges. A good example of the flora of the
country is the Bjelašnica mountain range. At the foot of the mountain,
you can meet various deciduous tree species such as oaks, grape or
coniferous trees. Winter oaks, hawthorn and black beech trees. In the
higher regions there is a mixed forest with beeches and firs.
The
walnut tree is native to southeastern Europe and is widespread in the
low zone. The high mountains mainly have juniper, which is extremely
resistant to cold. In the spring you can find a large number of flowers.
Typical representatives are violets, gentians, daffodils, chamomile,
wild garlic, fragrant cowslips, vipers and pansies. Many already largely
extinct flowers have become naturalized in Bosnia and Herzegovina, such
as the orchid plants on Lake Prokoško. Some calcareous soils offer ideal
conditions for orchids such as the Red Forest bird or the mountain
hyacinth. Because of the warm climate, lily plants also thrive in this
region. For example, some rare representatives of the genus Tulipa grow
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, such as the Tulipa biflora, which is
distributed from Croatia to Albania, or the Tulipa orphanidea, which is
a rarity and benefits from the untouched nature.
In addition, the
country has a considerable number of endemics. The Lilium carniolicum
var. bosniacum is endemic to calcareous soils in central Bosnia. For a
long time its classification was unclear, which led to it being counted
as a subspecies or variety to the Pyrenean lilies or as a synonym to the
Lilia chalcedonica. It was only after molecular genetic studies that it
was finally assigned to the Carniolan lily. One plant that has also been
without a clear classification for a long time and thrives in Bosnia is
Lilium jankae. The occurrence extends to the Rhodopes.
Eels can be found, for example, in Hutovo Blato. Hutovo Blato is a
natural park, which includes many small lakes and swamps. A large number
of other aquatic animal species, especially numerous cancers, also
occur.
Of the many different species of snakes that can be found
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, two are poisonous. Among the poisonous ones
are the European horned viper and the cross viper. The four-striped
snake is one of the non-toxic species. In addition to snakes, a large
number of other reptiles such as lizards also live in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
The fascinating bird life has been well preserved in
the Bosnian mountains. The green woodpecker is native to the deciduous
forests, and the black woodpecker is native to the coniferous forests of
the country. Griffon vultures are native to some mountains such as the
Bjelašnica. Among the most important birds of prey of the country are
the golden eagles, as well as the falcon species. The golden eagle is
native near the coast and in the many occurring mountains. The kestrel
is found throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Lanner falcon occurs in
a few breeding pairs in Herzegovina. Countless insect and beetle genera
are also represented in the country.
The largest animal in the
country is the endangered brown bear, of which about 2800 specimens live
in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
A traditional musical style is Sevdalinka - Bosnian folk music, the
character of which was strongly influenced by Ottoman influences. In
addition, folk music contains features of the music of the Sinti and
Roma and other ethnic groups. A well-known representative of the
Sevdalinka was Safet Isović until his death. However, the Sevdalinka is
generally only well received by the older Bosnian population and partly
by the older Bosniaks living in Montenegro and Serbia. On the other
hand, the so-called Narodna muzika, which is a mixture of the former
Yugoslav folk music, pop and partly techno music, is better received.
This has generally been the most popular in the Serbo-Croatian-speaking
countries since its inception (around 1980).
In addition to Goran
Bregović and his former band Bijelo dugme, the singers Zdravko Čolić,
Lepa Brena and Dino Merlin as well as the rappers Edo Maajka and Frenkie
are well-known musicians from Bosnia and Herzegovina in the
international arena. The rock/pop groups Zabranjeno Pušenje, Plavi
orkestar, Indexi, Crvena jabuka and Hari Mata Hari, as well as the heavy
metal band Divlje Jagode were among the most famous and popular in
Yugoslavia, along with Bijelo dugme. The musical center of this modern
Bosnian music was Sarajevo.
Since the end of the war, some Bosnian films have also received
international awards. Among them were Ničija Zemlja (German
Niemandsland, English No Man's Land) by Danis Tanović from 2001, which
received a Golden Globe and an Oscar, as well as the film Grbavica,
which received a Golden Bear at the Berlinale in 2006. Furthermore, the
film Welcome to Sarajevo with Woody Harrelson received great critical
acclaim. The film deals with the siege of Sarajevo in the early 1990s.
The director Emir Kusturica (Black Cat, White Cat; Life is a miracle) is
from Sarajevo. At the Berlinale 2016, the film Smrt u Sarajevu by Danis
Tanović received the Silver Bear.
The Sarajevo Film Festival is a
cinematic and cultural highlight every year in August and attracts more
and more tourists from abroad.
The three most important daily newspapers in Bosnia and Herzegovina
are Dnevni avaz (German Tagesstimme) and Oslobođenje (German:
Befreiung), both of which are published in Bosnian in Sarajevo, and
Nezavisne novine (eng. The Independent newspaper), which is published in
Banja Luka in Serbian language and Latin script. In addition, there are
a number of political weekly newspapers such as Slobodna Bosna (eng.
Free Bosnia) or Dani (eng. Day). Also popular are magazines that report
on current affairs or stars of folk music, such as Express or Svet (eng.
world; a newspaper of the same name and format is also published in
Serbia).
Bosnia and Herzegovina has a tripartite public
broadcasting and television system, with a national television and radio
station of the institution BHRT (BHTV 1 and BH Radio 1) and one entity
television and radio station each, the RTVFBiH (FTV and Radio F.) in the
Federation and the RTRS (RTRS TV and RTRS RRS) (Cyrillic: PTPC) in the
Republika Srpska. Some private channels like BN TV, OBN or NTV Hayat can
be received all over the country. Cable television is very popular,
which feeds stations from neighboring countries and German-speaking
countries. Since 11. In November 2011, the new TV channel Al Jazeera
Balkans broadcasts from Sarajevo, initially six hours a day in the
national language.
In 2020, 73.2 percent of the inhabitants of
Bosnia and Herzegovina used the Internet.
The Winter Olympic Games were held in Sarajevo and the surrounding
area in 1984. Football and basketball are the most popular sports in
Bosnia and Herzegovina.
In football, the country was constantly
developing and improving. Bosnia and Herzegovina almost qualified for
the 2004 European Football Championship, in the last match against
Denmark, only one victory was missing against the direct competitor, but
the match ultimately ended 1:1, with which Denmark qualified for the
2004 European Championship. The national team then prevailed at the 2014
World Cup qualification and took part in the 2014 World Cup in Brazil.
However, the team under the then coach Safet Sušić lost two of the three
group matches and finished the World Cup in 3rd place in the group.
Famous players of the national team are, among others, Edin Džeko,
Miralem Pjanić and Vedad Ibišević.
The national basketball team
has qualified for six European Championships so far, most recently in
2011. Probably the most famous basketball player in the nation is Mirza
Teletović, who plays for the Milwaukee Bucks in the NBA.
The
Bosnian-Herzegovinian volleyball team won the gold medal at the 2004
Summer Paralympics in Athens, Greece.
Special Olympics Bosnia and
Herzegovina was founded in 1999 and participated in Special Olympics
World Games several times. The association has announced its
participation in the Special Olympics World Summer Games 2023 in Berlin.
The delegation will be supported by the Aachen region as part of the
Host Town Program before the games.
The national chess team
achieved a success at the international level for Bosnia and Herzegovina
with the second place at the Chess Olympiad 1994 in Moscow.
The national cuisine has many specialties to offer, e.g. Bosanski
Lonac, Ćevapi, lokum ("Turkish honey"), pita (pide) in all variations of
vegetables. In addition, there are Sogan Dolma, Somun, Japrak, Baklava,
Halva, Burek, Sarma and much more. She is strongly influenced by Turkish
cuisine. Turkish coffee – which is brewed in a special coffee pot - and
homemade plum brandy (Šlivovic) are common drinks.
Holidays and
festivals
In addition to religious holidays such as Christmas and
Easter (for the Croats and Serbs), and the Islamic festivals Ramazanski
Bajram (at the end of Ramadan) and Kurban Bajram (at the time of the
pilgrimage to Mecca), the following holidays are valid in Bosnia and
Herzegovina:
New Year (Nova Godina): January 1 and 2 are national
holidays, New Year's Eve is celebrated magnificently, and January 13
(Serbian New Year according to the Julian calendar).
Labor Day (Prvi
maj): May 1 and 2 are national holidays, Labor Day is used as an
occasion for large public celebrations.
In addition, the
following holidays are celebrated in the Federation:
Independence
Day (Dan nezavisnosti): March 1 - commemorates the conclusion of the
referendum on independence on February 29 / March 1, 1992.
National
Day (Dan državnosti): November 25 - commemorates the proclamation of the
People's Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in Mrkonjić Grad on November
25, 1943.
In the Republika Srpska, March 1 and November 25 are
not celebrated, but January 9 is celebrated as Republic Day (Dan
Republike) and November 21 (Dayton Agreement Day).
In addition,
there are local holidays in the various communities and villages
inhabited mainly by Croats, which are based on the Christian calendar
(e.g. name days of saints, "little Easter", etc.). A special holiday is
the name day of the patron saint of each locality. In addition to a very
well-attended fair and possibly a procession, there are celebrations in
most houses and squares, to which the inhabitants of the neighboring
towns also come.
Bosnia and Herzegovina had 3.3 million inhabitants in 2020. The annual population growth rate was -0.6%. The population has been declining since the 1990s as a result of the war, emigration and the low birth rate. in 2020, a birth rate of 7.8 per 1000 inhabitants was contrasted with a death rate of 11.1 per 1000 inhabitants. The number of births per woman in 2020 was statistically 1.2. The life expectancy of the inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina from birth in 2020 was 77.5 years (women: 80, men: 75). The median age of the population in 2020 was 43.1 years, slightly above the European figure of 42.5.
The citizens of Bosnia and Herzegovina are called Bosnians. This
refers to Bosniaks and Croats as well as Serbs who are native to Bosnia
and Herzegovina. By contrast, the term Bosniaks refers exclusively to
Muslims of Bosnian origin. All of them belong to the "three constituent
peoples" of the state and are officially equal in rights.
The
2013 census showed a proportion of 50.1 percent Bosniaks (mostly
Muslims), 30.8 percent Serbs (mostly Orthodox) and 15.4 percent Croats
(mostly Catholics). The rest of the population either belongs to one of
the 17 officially recognized minorities, such as Roma and Jews, or did
not indicate an ethnic classification. The ethnic self-classification of
Bosnians is mainly based on their religious affiliation and the cultural
differences that are partly associated with it. There is no linguistic
separation within Bosnia, as all ethnic groups speak
Ijekavian-Neuštokavian dialects of Serbo-Croatian. However, since the
Yugoslav Wars, they usually refer to their language as Bosnian, Croatian
or Serbian by analogy with ethnicity and use the corresponding written
language standard.
in 2017, 1.1% of the resident population was
born abroad.
The inhabitants of Bosnia and Herzegovina mostly speak Ijekavian
varieties of the Štokavian dialect group, which hardly differ among
themselves. In the written form, according to the official division of
the population into three constituent peoples – Bosniaks, Croats and
Serbs, the closely related standard languages Bosnian, Serbian and
Croatian are used. Depending on the point of view, these languages are
also collectively referred to as Serbo-Croatian.
The three
standard languages can be distinguished in particular with regard to
their writing. For example, Serbian is written in Bosnia and Herzegovina
mainly in Cyrillic and to a lesser extent also in Latin script, whereas
Croatian is written exclusively with the Latin alphabet. Bosnian can be
written in both writing systems, but Latin is generally preferred. In
the temporal context of the Bosnian War, the Cyrillic script was
increasingly used by Bosnian Serbs, which is mainly due to the desired
distinction from the other two population groups. In the meantime, the
Cyrillic script was used more consistently in the Republika Srpska than
in Serbia itself.
Linguistically, the differences between the
three variants are very small; they are limited to a small part of the
vocabulary and concern certain sounds. For example, the standard Bosnian
language (as well as the Serbian language) contains more words of
Ottoman or Turkish origin, such as majmun (monkey).
In addition
to the Štokavian dialects, the smaller ethnic groups, e.g. the Roma, use
their own languages.
Christianity, Islam
In Bosnia and Herzegovina there has been a
coexistence of different religions and faiths for centuries. The
majority of the inhabitants are formally attributed to one of the two
major monotheistic religious communities (Christianity and Islam):
Muslims (about 50.7% according to the 2013 census, mostly ethnic
Bosniaks), mostly Serbian Orthodox Christians (about 30.7% in 2013) and
mostly Croatian Roman Catholic Christians (about 15.2%). For many
inhabitants, however, this classification has been an expression of a
cultural, historical or family connection rather than an actual
religiosity since the Yugoslav period. According to the 2013 census,
0.3% are agnostics and 0.8% are atheists. 2.3% of the total population
of the state belong to other groups, such as Protestantism, did not
indicate anything, or did not give an answer.
In 1991, 42.8
percent were still Muslims, 30.1 percent Serbian Orthodox and 17.6
percent Catholics. 5.7 Percent described themselves as atheists; the
remaining 3.8 percent belonged to other faiths or were
non-denominational.
Judaism
In 2008, there were about 1000
Jews living in Bosnia and Herzegovina, about 900 Sephardi and 100
Ashkenazi. The largest community is that of Sarajevo with about 700
members. 1,400 of the 2,000 Jews who fled Sarajevo during the Bosnian
War, mainly to Israel, still have Bosnian citizenship. According to a
research project that lasted from 2012 to 2014, 600 of them would like
to return to Sarajevo. According to the survey, the Jews consider Bosnia
and Herzegovina to be the second safest state in the world after Israel
and rate the security situation with a school grade of 1.3.
A compulsory education exists until the ninth grade. The graduates can then choose for a three-year vocational training or for a three- to four-year secondary education at high schools, church schools, art schools, technical schools or teacher training institutes. After passing an entrance examination, the graduates of a
The political system is often called the "most complicated system of
government in the world" by scientists and journalists. The state as a
whole, the entities and the 10 cantons each have their own legislative
and executive structures. To this end, the state is also subject to an
international mandate, see the section On the structure of the state.
In fact, part of the state power is exercised by the High
Representative – since August 2021 the German Christian Schmidt – as a
representative of the international community, which is justified by the
fact that as a result of the mutual distrust that arose during the war,
a blockade attitude still prevails among the leaders of the ethnic
groups. In addition, around 1000 foreign soldiers are still stationed in
Bosnia and Herzegovina as part of the EUFOR operation "Althea".
The full legal, economic and social equality of the sexes and thus the
active and passive women's suffrage were guaranteed for the first time
in the Constitution of 1946 (according to a different source for the
active and passive women's suffrage: January 31, 1949).
The party landscape of Bosnia and Herzegovina is fragmented by the
internal division. While the governing parties are relatively
manageable, many different parties are in opposition.
Among the
Bosniak parties, the SDA is the strongest. On the Serbian side, the SNSD
around Milorad Dodik dominates, while the HDZ BiH dominates among the
Croats. The strongest multi-ethnic parties are the SDP and the DF.
Elections in 2006 and accession negotiations with the European Union
The elections on October 1, 2006 were considered forward-looking,
because in 2007 the international community wanted to remove the High
Representative and transfer Bosnia and Herzegovina to full sovereignty.
In retrospect, this project was initially postponed for another year.
Bosniak Haris Silajdžić from the Party for Bosnia and Herzegovina
(SBiH), Serb Nebojša Radmanović from the Federation of Independent
Social Democrats (SNSD) and Croat Željko Komšić from the multi-ethnic
Social Democrats were elected to the State Presidium. Komšić beat his
opponent from the nationalist Croatian Democratic Union in Bosnia and
Herzegovina (HDZ BiH) in a head-to-head race. Croatian nationalist
groups then protested that Komšić could not represent Croatian
interests, as members of other ethnic groups had voted for him in the
first place. The Bosnian Serb party SNSD had again called for a
referendum for the independence of the Republika Srpska before the
elections, if the calls for greater centralization did not stop.
Silajdžić campaigned for a constitutional amendment that would allow
Bosnia to grow together into a "functioning" state. This is partly
interpreted in such a way that he questioned the existence of the
entities. In January 2008, the chairman of the SNSD, Milorad Dodik,
reaffirmed the belonging of the Republika Srpska to the state as a whole
and his will to maintain it. In 2010, however, Dodik had repeatedly
spoken of a possible secession of the Serbian half of the state or that
he did not give Bosnia's continued existence any chances.
At the
end of February 2008, EU representatives, together with envoys from the
USA and Russia, decided to leave the High Representative in the country
for an indefinite period. On 16 June 2008, the Stabilisation and
Association Agreement with the European Union was concluded, which is
considered an important preliminary stage for the intended accession to
the EU. The signing was made conditional on a police reform. The police
of both parts of the state were called upon to cooperate more
intensively with each other, in particular to convict more war
criminals. The European Union Police Mission (EUPM) has been operating
in Bosnia and Herzegovina since 2003. She is primarily responsible for
the fight against organized crime and for advising on police reform.
Elections in 2010 and delayed formation of a government
In the
general elections on October 3, 2010, the following were elected as
members of the State Presidium: Željko Komšić (Bosnian Croat member),
Bakir Izetbegović (Bosnian Bosniak member) and Nebojša Radmanović
(Bosnian Serb member). However, in this election, there were doubts
whether the victory in two cases did not come about as a result of
electoral fraud. The Election Commission had ordered a recount of the
unusually large number of invalid votes in the election of the Serbian
and Bosniak members of the State Presidium. After a recount, all three
elected members of the State Presidium were confirmed and at the
constituent meeting on November 10, 2010, Nebojša Radmanović was elected
the first chairman of the State Presidium.
In addition to the
State Presidium, the General State Parliament, consisting of two
chambers, the parliaments of the Bosniak-Croatian Federation and the
Republika Srpska, the President of the Serbian sub-state, its two
vice-presidents and, in the Federation, the parliaments of the ten
cantons were elected.
After the elections in October 2010,
conflicts among the leading Bosniak, Serbian and Croatian parties
prevented the formation of a government. It was only after almost 15
months, during which the International Monetary Fund and the European
Union, among others, had suspended their loan payments, that the six
major parties of the three ethnic groups agreed on a new government at
the end of December 2011. If the agreement had not been reached before
January 1, 2012, all payments from the state budget would have had to be
stopped. According to media reports, the political representatives are
also said to have agreed on the 2012 budget and some EU-compliant laws.
At the beginning of January 2012, Vjekoslav Bevanda of the Croatian
Democratic Union in Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH) was elected by the
parliament as the new Prime Minister.
Elections in 2014 and the
formation of the government in 2015
The elections on 12 October 2014
were contested by 51 political parties, 14 other alliances and 15
independent candidates. The voter turnout was 54.14 percent, about 2
percentage points less than in 2010.
The following were elected
to the State Presidium: Bakir Izetbegović as a Bosniak member with
32.87%, Dragan Čović as a Croatian member with 52.2% and Mladen Ivanić
as a Serbian member with 48.71%.
In the elections for the state
parliament as a whole, the seats from the Federation were won by the
following parties: SDA (27.87%, 9 seats), DF (15.33%, 5), SBB (14.44%,
4), HDZ BiH Coalition (12.15%, 4), SDP (9.45%, 3), HDZ 1990 (4.08%, 1),
BPS (3.65%, 1) and A-SDA (2.25 %, 1). The seats of the Republika Srpska
go to SNSD (38.46%, 6 seats), SDS (33.64%, 5), PDP-NDP (7.76%, 1), DNS
(5.72%, 1) and SDA (4.88%, 1).
Formation of the general
government 2015
Only almost six months after the election, the new
all-state government was formed and confirmed by a five-party coalition
of the House of Representatives. Denis Zvizdić of the SDA became the
chairman of the Council of Ministers and thus the head of government.
The HDZ got three of the nine ministerial posts, although it received
only 7.5 percent of the votes in the elections. The multiethnic
Demokratska Fronta (DF), despite 9.2 percent, provided only one
minister. The Minister of Foreign Affairs was the Serb Igor Crnadak. The
Serbian parties that were in the government are considered
reform-oriented and not separatist. The leading SNSD in the Republika
Srpska was excluded at the state level.
Elections in 2018 and the
formation of a government in 2019
In the elections on October 7,
2018, 14 parties or alliances won seats in the House of Representatives.
The voter turnout was 54.02%. Šefik Džaferović, a Bosniak candidate,
Željko Komšić, a Croatian candidate, and Milorad Dodik, a Serbian
candidate, were elected to the three-member State Presidium. Only 14
months later, in December 2019, a new government with the coalition
partners SDA, SNSD, SBB, HDZ and DF was confirmed in parliament. The
formation of the government had dragged on mainly because political
forces in the Republika Srpska opposed the signing of a work program
with NATO. The head of government (chairman of the Council of Ministers)
became Zoran Tegeltija (SNSD, Alliance of Independent Social Democrats).
Elections in 2022 and the formation of a government in 2023
In
the elections on October 2, 2022, as four years earlier, 14 parties or
alliances won seats in the House of Representatives. The voter turnout
was 50.41%. Denis Bećirović (SDP), the Bosniak candidate, Željko Komšić
(DF), the Croatian candidate and Željka Cvijanović (SNSD), the Serbian
candidate, were elected to the three-member State Presidium. In January
2023, a new government was formed with the coalition partners HDZ, SNSD
and a multi-ethnic alliance led by the SDP ("Osmorka"). As a result, the
SDA, the leading party among the Bosniaks, was excluded from
participating in the government at the state level. Borjana Krišto (HDZ)
was appointed Chairwoman of the Council of Ministers and thus Head of
Government. Krišto is the first woman to chair the Council of Ministers
of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Bosnia and Herzegovina has ratified the UN Convention on the Rights
of Women and the Additional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of
Women. The death penalty has been abolished. In its 2008 report, the
International Helsinki Federation for Human Rights noted that
discrimination takes place in some areas of life, such as employment.
The situation of human rights defenders is also alarming. Attacks on
journalists have escalated. At the first queer festival on the topic of
human rights and sexuality in September 2007, one organizer was
threatened with death and eight participants were beaten. Before the
festival, politicians, clergy and some media had launched a campaign
against the event.
Citing BH Journalists, the report spoke in
2008 of 54 cases in which the rights of journalists or the freedom of
the press had been violated. There have been 25 cases recorded in which
journalists have been attacked or threatened, including with death.
Until the end of 2005, the defense policy was with the two entities. Since 2006, the Armed Forces have been subordinate to the State Presidency and the Ministry of Defense, created in 2004, at the state level. The joint army consists of up to 10,000 active professional soldiers and an "active reserve" about half as strong. In addition to the formally integrated operational structures, there is a Bosniak, Serbian and Croatian regiment each, which should continue the traditions of the three sub-forces ARBiH, HVO and VRS. The general conscription was abolished on January 1, 2006. The aim is to integrate the armed forces into European and Euro-Atlantic structures and to participate in UN operations. In 2006, Bosnia and Herzegovina joined the NATO "Partnership for Peace". In October 2010, a military contingent consisting of 45 members was deployed to Afghanistan in support of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The number of troops has increased to 53 soldiers by 2012.
The political structure of the state is complex. Since the Dayton Treaty (also known as the Dayton Peace Agreement), Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Federacija Bosne i Hercegovine) with 2,371,603 inhabitants (62.55%) and the Republika Srpska with 1,326,991 inhabitants (35%). Both entities each have their own executive and legislative branches. The Brčko district around the northern Bosnian town of the same name with 93,028 inhabitants (2.45%) is directly subordinate to the state as a condominium of both entities. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is made up of ten cantons that have their own responsibilities. For statistical purposes, the Republika Srpska is also divided into regions, which, however, have no administrative significance. The lowest administrative level is occupied by the 142 municipalities (općine and opštine).
In the former Yugoslavia, Bosnia and Herzegovina was one of the
economically weaker regions. After the end of the Bosnian War, there was
initially a continuous economic growth. The strict monetary policy,
which includes a fixed exchange rate of the convertible mark to the
euro, contributed to the stability of the currency. The banking system
has been reformed, with foreign banks controlling 85 percent of the
banks. The officially declared unemployment rate is 28.2 percent and
youth unemployment is even 67.6%, although this rate is reduced by a
large gray economic sector. The introduction of a value-added tax in
2006 increased state revenues.
Exports are still poorly
diversified; minerals and wood account for 50 percent of all exports. So
far, the high current account deficit has been offset by transfers from
Bosnians living abroad. The main trading partner of Bosnia and
Herzegovina is the European Union with a share of about 50 percent.
Austria is the largest foreign investor in terms of value, ahead of
Slovenia. The large and inefficient public sector, bureaucratic
obstacles for entrepreneurs and the fragmented labor market, reflecting
the ethnic division of the state, are considered problematic for
economic development. In the Global Competitiveness Index, which
measures the competitiveness of a country, Bosnia and Herzegovina ranks
103rd out of 137 countries (as of: 2017-2018). In the index for Economic
Freedom, the state ranks 92nd out of 180 states in 2017.
The
global financial crisis is having an impact in a severe recession. It
initially concerned the decline in exports and then a drastic slump in
domestic demand as well. Some large industrial enterprises had to
suspend their production for the time being. In the first quarter of
2009, the Federation reported a decrease in industrial production by 10
percent, while in the Republika Srpska an increase of 13 percent was
recorded (mainly due to the commissioning of a large oil processing
plant). Many significant industrial sectors in both entities reported
declines of the order of 20 percent.
The gross domestic product
(GDP) of the state in 2015 was about 14.21 billion euros, the gross
domestic product per capita was 3,749 euros. Bosnia and Herzegovina has
now largely recovered from the financial crisis. In 2014, the economy
grew by 1.05%. In 2015, a growth rate of 2.1% was recorded. An annual
economic growth of over 3% is expected in the next few years.
The Convertible Mark (abbreviation KM, abbreviation BAM in
international payment transactions (according to ISO 4217)) has been a
valid means of payment throughout Bosnia and Herzegovina since June 22,
1998. The KM is pegged to the euro in a fixed ratio of 1.95583:1 and
thus corresponds to the value of the former D-Mark.
According to
the law, all domestic invoices must be shown with the Convertible Mark.
Nevertheless, the euro, as well as the Serbian dinar, is widely
accepted, although this is not officially desired.
According to CIA estimates, the 2016 state budget included
expenditures of the equivalent of 7.975 billion US dollars, which were
offset by revenues of the equivalent of 7.681 billion US dollars. This
results in a budget deficit of 1.7% of GDP. According to IMF estimates,
the national debt amounted to 44.3% of GDP in 2016.
Government
spending (as a percentage of GDP):
Health: 10.9% (2009)
Education:
k. A.
Military: 1.4% (estimated for 2011)
Tourism was also able to develop only slowly due to the war. For
several years now, more and more tourists have been coming to Bosnia and
Herzegovina – especially to Mostar and Sarajevo.
Important
destinations
Stari most (Bridge of Mostar), UNESCO World Heritage
Stari most u Višegradu (Bridge of Višegrad), UNESCO World Heritage
Vrelo Bune (Buna source), one of the strongest and largest sources in
Europe
Jajce, with its castle, 17-meter-high waterfall and Pliva
lakes
Kravice vodopad (Kravica Waterfalls), under nature protection
Međugorje, world-famous pilgrimage site
Bosanske piramide (Bosnian
Pyramids), pyramid-like mountains
Nacionalni park Kozara (Kozara
National Park), monument to the victims of the Battle of Kozara in World
War II
Nacionalni park Sutjeska (Sutjeska National Park): The park
includes one of the two last primeval forests in Europe (Perućica), the
highest peak in the country (Maglić), the 75-meter-high Skakavac
waterfall and the Sutjeska Gorge.
Hutovo Blato, the largest nature
reserve for marsh birds in Europe
Others are the castle and
fortress walls of Počitelj, the medieval castle of Travnik, the
fortification and the amphitheater of Banja Luka, the lakes Blidinjsko
jezero, Prokoško jezero and Šatorsko jezero, numerous medieval
tombstones (Stećci) especially in Herzegovina, the rafting offers on the
rivers Neretva, Una, Vrbas and Drina, the Adriatic coastal town of Neum
with the highest average annual temperature in the country, as well as
the memorial dedicated by US President Bill Clinton in Potočari for the
victims of the Srebrenica massacre.
There are numerous sights in Sarajevo and the surrounding area. The
Latin Bridge, for example, was the starting point of the First World
War, as it was here that the assassination of Franz Ferdinand of Austria
and his wife was committed. The Bosmal City Center (118 m) and the Avaz
Twist Tower (142 m) were completed in 2001 and 2009 respectively and are
currently the tallest buildings on the Balkan Peninsula. Also worth
seeing are the entire old town Baščaršija with the Turkish water
fountain Sebilj and the Vijećnica, the old town hall of the city.
Furthermore, there are many magnificent historical mosques in the city
(for example, Gazi Husrev Beg Mosque, the largest historical mosque in
the country) and church buildings.
In the immediate vicinity
there are also the winter sports areas Bjelašnica and Jahorina, where
the Olympic Winter Games were held in 1984.
The siege of the city
during the Bosnian War is commemorated by the Sarajevski ratni tunel
(Sarajevo Tunnel), the Historijski muzej Bosne i Hercegovine (Historical
Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina), the "Roses of Sarajevo" and the still
numerous destruction and bullet holes on buildings, mainly on the
outskirts of the city.
The city also offers other museums
dedicated to the historical reappraisal of the city and the entire
state. These include, for example, the National Museum and the Museum of
Sarajevo.
Both entities have extensive autonomy in energy policy, as in many
other areas. For example, there are two energy ministries, each of which
issues different laws and regulations. The state-wide electricity
regulatory authority DERK has a regulatory commission at the entity
level. The market is divided among three power companies. The EP RS
supplies the Republika Srpska, the EP BiH and the EP HZHB supply the
Federation. There is no separation between electricity generation and
distribution. In the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the companies
EP BiH and EP HZHB are responsible for both, and in the Republika
Srpska, companies belonging to the EP RS Group are working on power
distribution. For electricity transmission, there is the national
independent grid operator NOS BiH and the company responsible for
electricity transfer Elektroprenos-Elektroprijenos Bosne i Hercegovine
a.d., which also operates nationwide.
In Bosnia and Herzegovina,
electric power is primarily generated by coal-fired and hydroelectric
power plants. The coal reserves amount to about 4 billion tons, the
hydropower potential is estimated at 6800 MW, of which only 35% has been
exploited so far. The planned investments in the energy sector by 2020
amount to 3.9 billion euros (as of 2009).
In 2007, 9.4% of the
primary energy production in Bosnia and Herzegovina was covered by
renewable energies. About 50% of the total land area is covered with
forest, which indicates a large biomass potential. According to expert
estimates, 9,200 GWh could be generated from biomass. in 2009, the use
of biomass was limited to about 4.2% and exclusively to the heating of
households. In areas without a district heating network, the consumption
of biomass in the form of wood and charcoal was up to 60% of the total
energy consumption.
Street
The entire road network covered about 22,926 km in 2010, of
which 19,426 km are paved.
Since 2001, highway 1 from the
Adriatic Sea to Budapest has been under construction, the first of the
currently five planned highways in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This is to
lead from Ploče in Croatia via Mostar, Sarajevo, Zenica and Doboj to
Croatian territory and form part of the European transport corridor 5C.
In total, this highway will run through Bosnia and Herzegovina for about
360 km. However, the year of its complete completion is unknown. A
further four motorway connections are in the planning phase and have not
yet been numbered. Political differences between the two entities of
Bosnia and Herzegovina, including on the number assignment, prevent an
agreement.
Railway
There are two railway companies in Bosnia
and Herzegovina: on the one hand the Railway Company of the Federation
of Bosnia and Herzegovina and on the other hand the railway company of
the Republika Srpska.
Rail transport takes place mainly on two
main axes:
A north-south route runs from the Croatian junction
station Strizivojna-Vrpolje on the Zagreb-Belgrade railway line via
Šamac, Doboj, Zenica, Sarajevo and Mostar to the Croatian port city of
Ploče.
The most important east-west route runs from the Croatian
Sisak via Novi Grad and Banja Luka to Doboj, where it joins the
aforementioned route.
These main axes are supplemented by the Una
railway running from Novi Grad to Knin via Bihać and Martin Brod, as
well as a line leading from Doboj to Tuzla, which is connected by a line
via Brčko to Croatia and a line via Zvornik to Serbia.
In
addition, there are a number of factory and mine railways, some of which
are still operated by steam.
The railway network of Bosnia and
Herzegovina was severely damaged in the Bosnian War. Since December
2016, the railway connection from Zagreb to Sarajevo has been
discontinued. There is also no train service between Belgrade and
Sarajevo.
All of the narrow-gauge lines ("Bosnian Narrow Gauge")
still built by the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy were abandoned and mostly
dismantled around 1970. An exception is the factory railway of the
Banovići coal mine - steam locomotives were still in occasional use here
in 2011.
In 2005, a renewal program was decided. Nine Spanish
Talgo express trains were purchased. Currently (2023) two of the nine
Talgo sets are required in daily operation.
Aviation
There are
currently four international airports:
Sarajevo Airport
Mostar
Airport
Banja Luka Airport
Tuzla Airport
Shipping
The
port of Neum is the only access of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the
Mediterranean Sea.
Exposure to landmines
When leaving paved
roads, there is a risk of landmines in many parts of the country. Bosnia
and Herzegovina is the most heavily mined area in Europe, along with
Kosovo and Croatia. Even in 2009, around 1,573 square kilometres of the
national territory – especially in the forests and mountain areas – were
still considered to be at risk of mines, while the settlements and
agricultural areas have usually already been cleared. From the end of
the war in 1996 to 2017, 605 people were killed in mine accidents
(including 74 deminers) and 1131 injured. The Bosnian army and civilian
clearing companies are responsible for clearing known minefields.