Language: Spanish
Calling code: +58
Currency: Bolivar fuerte (VEF)
Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of
Venezuela, is a sovereign country located in the northern part of
South America and the Caribbean, consisting of a continental area
and a large number of islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea, whose
capital and largest urban agglomeration is the city of Caracas.
It has a territorial extension of 916 445 km2. The continental
territory is bordered to the north by the Caribbean Sea and the
Atlantic Ocean, to the west by Colombia, to the south by Brazil and
to the east by Guyana. With the latter country, the Venezuelan State
maintains a claim on 159,542 km2 of territory west of the Essequibo
River, this area is known as Guayana Esequiba or Zone in Claim,
previously under the control of Dutch Guiana. Due to its maritime
spaces, it exercises sovereignty over 71,295 km2 of territorial sea,
22,224 km2 in its contiguous zone, 471,507 km2 of the Caribbean Sea
and the Atlantic Ocean under the concept of exclusive economic zone,
and 99,889 km2 of continental shelf. This marine area borders those
of thirteen states. The country has a very high biodiversity and
occupies the seventh place in the world list of nations with the
most species. There are habitats ranging from the Andes mountains in
the west to the tropical rainforest of the Orinoco basin in the
south, through the extensive plains of Los Llanos, the Caribbean
coast and the Orinoco River delta in the east.
The territory
currently known as Venezuela was colonized by Spain in 1522, amid
the resistance of the indigenous peoples who inhabited the region.
In the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the ideas of
independence and freedom spread throughout Latin America, and in
1811, Venezuela became one of the first Spanish-American territories
to declare its independence from Spain. The struggle for Venezuelan
independence was led by prominent figures such as Francisco de
Miranda, precursor of independence; Simon Bolivar, the Liberator;
and José Antonio Páez, among others. These leaders led several
military campaigns against the Spanish colonial forces, achieving
important victories such as the Battle of Carabobo in 1821, which
was crucial for the consolidation of the independence of Venezuela
and Gran Colombia, a federation that also included present-day
Colombia, Ecuador and Panama. However, Gran Colombia was dissolved
in 1830, leaving Venezuela as an independent country. For much of
the nineteenth century, Venezuela experienced political turmoil and
was dominated by regional caudillos, which hindered the country's
stability and progress. From 1958, Venezuela entered a period of
democratic governments. However, in the 1980s and 1990s, the country
faced a series of economic crises that triggered social unrest, coup
attempts and political trials, such as the trial of President Carlos
Andrés Pérez for embezzlement of public funds in 1993.
Dissatisfaction with the traditional political parties led to the
election in 1998 of former military man Hugo Chavez, who had led an
attempted coup in 1992. Chávez initiated what he called the
Bolivarian Revolution, convening a Constituent Assembly in 1999 to
draft a new constitution that would change the country's official
name to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, reflecting his
political and social vision. The presidency of Hugo Chávez marked a
period of transformation in Venezuela, characterized by
socialist-style policies, nationalizations of key companies and
greater state intervention in the economy. The Chávez era was also
marked by internal and external political tensions, as well as
polarization in Venezuelan society, laying the foundations for the
political and economic challenges that the country would face in the
following years.
By 2010, Venezuela had the largest oil
reserves in the world and was one of the world's leading oil
exporters. Before the exploitation of oil, the country was an
exporter of agricultural products, such as coffee and cocoa, but oil
quickly came to dominate the country's exports and income. The
global oversupply of oil in the 1980s led to an external debt crisis
and a prolonged economic crisis. Inflation skyrocketed in 1996 and
poverty rates rose to 66% in 1995. By 1998 GDP per capita fell to
the same level as in 1963, one third of its peak, reached in 1978.
The government of Hugo Chávez was characterized by its
anti-imperialist ideology and a change in the geopolitics of the oil
market looking for new markets and supporting countries lacking the
oil resource, public spending was increased with the theory of
distributing wealth and the external debt grew to more than 118
billion dollars in an uncontrolled way that despite having an oil
boom the consequences would be noticeable years later the income of
foreign currencies that were invested largely in social welfare
policies, while the Venezuelan national production was stagnant
during the first years of his government, increasing social spending
and temporarily reducing poverty and economic inequality, thanks
largely to the increase in oil prices that favored the increase of
the country's income.
Years later, the reduction of income
due largely to excessive public spending, the increase in imports,
corruption, the fall of national production due to excessive state
control and economic policies that end up choking the private
sector, are widely cited as factors that destabilized the country's
economy. This led to a generalized crisis that brought as a
consequence hyperinflation, economic depression, shortages of basic
products and drastic increases in unemployment, poverty, diseases,
infant mortality, malnutrition and crime. At the end of 2017,
credit rating agencies declared Venezuela in default with debt
payments. In 2019, the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Human Rights issued a report stating that the
Venezuelan government has engaged in systematic human rights
violations.
Andes
Mountains, this is a region comprised by the
states of Mérida, Táchira and Trujillo.
Caribbean Islands
With
more than 600 islands, cays and archipelagos, the most of the beaches
can be found here.
central coastline
The largest concentration
of people in Venezuela in addition to the most populated regions, such
as Caracas, Miranda, Vargas with access to the states of Aragua and
Carabobo.
Guyana
It is the most extensive region of the
country. It extends from the Orinoco River to the front of Brazil and
Guyana. It includes the states of Bolívar, Amazonas and Delta Amacuro.
The plains
The high plains are found at the foot of the Andes and
are very rich lands for cultivation. They comprise the states of Apure,
Barinas, Cojedes, Guárico and Portuguesa.
East
It has a wide
range of natural attractions, thanks to its geographical diversity, for
Anzoátegui and Sucre beaches, between the beaches of Sucre state, those
of Playa Colorada and Cumaná stand out, for mountaineering and
excursions the region near Caripe in Monagas state .
Western
Zulia state is an oil state, in Falcón you can find various beaches and
Yaracuy and Lara states have jungle areas and the main activities are
agricultural. Similarly, the Northwest region is very rich in cultural
events.
1 Caracas – Being the capital and the largest city of
Venezuela, Caracas is known for being one of the most cosmopolitan and
modern cities in South America. There are many places to visit, like
theaters, shopping centers, museums, art galleries, parks,
well-preserved colonial architecture and even gourmet restaurants.
2
Coro – The first capital of Venezuela and a city rich in colonial
architecture, a unique natural setting and a tourist attraction. Its
historic center is considered a World Heritage Site.
3 Ciudad Bolívar
– Starting point for Angel Falls and comfortable stopover to Brazil.
4 Ciudad Guayana – Dominated by heavy industry, it is the most organized
city in Venezuela and the main gateway to the Orinoco delta and the Gran
Sabana. It is still known locally as Puerto Ordaz or San Félix.
Cumaná – It is the first city founded on the American mainland, capital
of the colonial province of Nueva Andalucía, and historically it is the
most important city in eastern Venezuela.
5 Maracaibo – The second
largest city in Venezuela. Suffocating and built on petroleum.
6
Maracay – Once the capital of Venezuela, now home to the main military
headquarters, it is also nicknamed the Garden City.
7 Mérida – Also
known as the city of gentlemen, it is a charming university city in the
Andes mountains, popular for its outdoor activities.
8 Puerto La Cruz
– The city you should go to if you want to visit the beaches in eastern
Venezuela.
9 San Cristóbal – A lush industrial city in the Andes
Mountains, on the border with Colombia.
Angel Falls located on Auyantepui plateau in Bolivar State in Venezuela is the highest waterfall in the World.
Los Roques Archipelago located North of Caracas is made up of 350 islands with untouched marine biosphere.
Cueva del Guácharo National Park located in Venezuela is a nature preserve dedicated to preservation of underground biosphere.
Delta del Orinoco or delta of river Orinoco is a unique wetland biosphere situated in the eastern Orinoco.
Henri Pittier National Park or Parque Nacional Henri Pittier is a nature reserve situated in the state of Aragua in Venezuela.
Mochima Nacional Park or Parque Nacional Mochima is a massive protected area in the Sucre State in in the North Venezuela.
Río Caura or River Caura River is one of the tributaries of the Orinoco River located in the Bolívar State of Venezuela.
Mount Roraima influenced famous author Arthur Conan Doyle to write his book The Lost World in 1912.
Salto Aponguao is a beautiful waterfall on Aponguao river that is one of the tributaries of the Orinoco river in Venezuela.
Teleférico de Mérida or Mérida Cable Car is situated in Merida in Venezuela.
National parks and monuments
The national parks and monuments of
Venezuela constitute landscapes of great beauty, where there are species
of plants and animals or habitats of biological, educational and
landscape interest. Recreational, tourist and educational activities, as
well as scientific research, are allowed in these areas. In total there
are 43 national parks and 22 natural monuments in 2007, which are
equivalent to 21.76% of the Venezuelan territory. Among the national
parks are:
Henri Pittier National Park, located in Maracay, Aragua
state.
Waraira Repano National Park, located in Caracas, Capital
District.
Canaima National Park, located between El Dorado and Santa
Elena de Wairen, Bolívar state.
Laguna de La Restinga National Park,
located on the Isla de Margarita, Nueva Esparta state.
Paria
Peninsula National Park, located in the Paria Peninsula, Sucre state.
San Esteban National Park, located in Puerto Cabello, Carabobo state.
Cerro Saroche National Park, located between Barquisimeto and Carora,
Lara state.
Morrocoy National Park, located in Tucacas, Falcon state.
Terepaima National Park, located between the states of Lara and
Portuguesa.
Santos Luzardo National Park. Located between the
Cinaruco and Capanaparo river basins, Apure state.
Laguna de
Tacarigua National Park, located in Tacarigua de la Laguna, Miranda
state.
Perija National Park, located in the Sierra de Perija, Zulia
state.
Cerro Copey National Park, located on the island of Margarita,
Nueva Esparta state.
Guatopo National Park, located in the states of
Miranda and Guárico.
Venezuela has about 314 islands, keys and islets. Most of the
best-known Venezuelan islands are in the Caribbean Sea, however there
are many other fluvial islands. Regarding the marinas, they are located
on the coasts of the states of Anzoátegui, Sucre, Nueva Esparta and
Federal Dependencies. Among the main Venezuelan islands and
archipelagos, the following stand out:
Margarita Island
Cubagua Island
car island
chimanas islands
Los Roques National
Park
Las Aves Islands archipelago
La Orchila Island
Turtle
Island
Los Frailes Archipelago
Keys of Morrocoy National Park
San Carlos Island
Los Monjes Archipelago
The country is made up of three hydrographic slopes: that of the
Caribbean Sea, that of the Atlantic Ocean and that of Lake Valencia,
which forms an endorheic basin.
Most of Venezuela's river waters
drain on the Atlantic slope. The largest basin in this area is the
extensive Orinoco basin whose surface, close to a million km², is
greater than that of all of Venezuela, constituting the third in South
America, and it gives rise to a flow of about 33 thousand m³. /s, making
the Orinoco the third largest in the world, this basin is connected
through El Río or Brazo Casiquiare, for its part, it constitutes a
unique case in the world, since it is a natural derivation of the
Orinoco that, after about 500 km long, connects it with the Negro River,
which is in turn a tributary of the Amazon. Other Venezuelan river
basins that empty into the Atlantic slope are the waters of the San
Juan, Cuyuní, Gulf of Paria and the Essequibo river basins.
The
second most important slope is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers in this
region tend to be short and have a low and irregular flow, with some
exceptions, such as the Catatumbo, which rises in Colombia and empties
into the Lake Maracaibo basin. Among the rivers that reach the Lake
Maracaibo basin are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and the
contributions of the smaller basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and
Manzanares rivers.
The third slope is the basin of Lake Valencia.
The main lakes in the country are Lake Maracaibo —the largest in
South America— open to the sea through a natural channel, but with fresh
water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic system. Other mentionable
bodies of water are the Guri reservoir, the Altagracia lagoon, the
Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon, in the Andes.
Some
rivers or water bodies of tourist interest are:
Angel jump
Orinoco
river
The drizzle
cachamay
jump the toad
jump the ax
La
Restinga Lagoon
Maracaibo lake
In the area of plains and savannahs in Venezuela, two regions stand
out: the Llanos region and the Gran Sabana region.
The Llanos de
Venezuela are considered one of the most important ecosystems in the
world with two marked seasons, the rainy season and the dry season, it
is characterized by its extensive savannahs, its climate is
intertropical savannah being humid and hot, except in the high plains
with a milder climate.
The economic importance of the plains is
due to the fact that this is a suitable region for extensive cattle
raising and agriculture. There is also significant oil activity in the
Venezuelan states of Anzoátegui, Apure, Barinas, Guárico and Monagas.
The inhabitants of the region, the plains, are hospitable people,
excellent horsemen, the original cowboys. The main musical rhythm of the
Llanos is the joropo.
La Gran Sabana is a region located in the
southeast of Venezuela, in the Guianas massif, to the south-east of
Bolívar State, and which extends to the border with Brazil and Guyana.
The
Gran Sabana has an area of 10,820 km², and is part of one of
the largest National Parks in Venezuela, the Canaima National Park.
The average temperature is around 20 °C, but at night it can drop to
13 °C, and in some of the higher places, depending on the weather, it
can drop a little more. The place offers unique landscapes in the whole
world, it has rivers, waterfalls and streams, deep and extensive
valleys, impenetrable jungles, savannahs that are home to a large number
and variety of plant species, a diverse fauna, and the plateaus better
known as tepuis.
In these regions it is recommended to visit:
Santos Luzardo Cinaruco National Park - Capanaparo
Aguaro Guariquito
National Park
Mariusa National Park
Rio Viejo National Park
Mount Roraima
Mount Kukenán
The Great Savannah
40% of the Venezuelan territory is protected in special protection
areas. In addition, there are also a high number of recreational parks,
zoos, theme parks, and buildings for concentrations, among them are:
Generalísimo Francisco de Miranda Park, in Miranda state.
Knoop
Park, in Miranda state.
Vinicio Adames Park, in Miranda state.
Los
Caobos Park, the Capital District.
Caricuao Zoological Park, in the
Capital District.
Poliedro de Caracas, in the Capital District.
Las Delicias Zoological Park, in the state of Aragua
Plaza de Toros
Maestranza César Girón, in the state of Aragua
Fernando Peñalver
Park, in the Carabobo state.
Aquarium of Valencia, in the Carabobo
state.
Dunas Water Park, in Carabobo state.
LunaPark Amusement
Park, in Carabobo state.
Monumental bullring of Valencia, in the
Carabobo state.
Loefling Zoo, in Bolívar state.
La Llovizna Park,
in Bolívar state.
Cachamay Park in Bolívar state.
Dr. León Croizat
Xerophyte Garden, in Falcón state.
Metropolitan Zoological Park of
Zulia, in Zulia state.
Waterland Mundo Marino, in Nueva Esparta
state.
Albarregas Metropolitan Park in the state of Merida.
Campo Carabobo in Valencia.
Angostura Congress House in Ciudad
Bolívar
House of a hundred windows in Coro
Birthplace of the
Liberator of America Simón Bolívar in Caracas.
San Antonio de la
Eminencia Castle, Santa Maria de la Cabeza Fortress, San Francisco
Convent, Santa Ines Co-Cathedral Church and Sacred Heart of Jesus
Metropolitan Cathedral in Cumaná.
San Carlos Borromeo Castle in
Pampatar.
National Pantheon in Caracas
Monument to the Liberator
w: Simón Bolívar, is located in the spaces of the Botanical Garden of
Ciudad Bolívar
Venezuela uses a domestic electrical network of 120V at 60Hz, with plugs type A and B, exactly the same as the United States. Power adapters of various types can be found at hardware and parts stores.
The telephone prefix of Venezuela is 58.
Landline numbers are 7 digits, and cell phone numbers are 10.
There are a certain number of public telephones that work with cards,
the main telephone operator in the country is CANTV in fixed telephony
and in mobile MOVILNET in this last type Movistar and Digitel also
operate.
The Legal Time of Venezuela (HLV) is an official service of the
Venezuelan State that establishes the local time of the country
administered by the Hydrography and Navigation Service based at the
Cagigal Naval Observatory, in Caracas.
UTC−04:30 is the time zone
used only in Venezuela. In order to be informed of the legal time in
Venezuela, you can request by telephone by number 119.
In
December 2010, the Presidency of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,
according to Decree No. 5,693, reformed Legal Time, in order to adopt
the legal time of the meridian of minus four hours and thirty minutes in
relation to the UTC meridian, which corresponds to the 67th 30th
meridian. ' from Villa de Cura (central solar time).
Venezuelan Football Federation - First
Division, is the highest category of professional football in Venezuela.
The Opening Tournament and Closing Tournament played in the second and
first semester of the year, respectively.
Professional Basketball
League of Venezuela, is the highest basketball competition. The league
is made up of 10 teams. The season starts in February and ends in April.
Venezuelan Professional Baseball League, is the highest level
professional baseball league in Venezuela, made up of eight local teams
that play a knockout championship from October to December, a semifinal
series in January, commonly called Round Robin or All against All and a
series final between the two best teams in the semifinal.
The national language is Spanish. To travel around the country on
your own, you should at least have a basic knowledge of the language.
Outside of Caracas, English won't get you very far. Even in Caracas,
it's not the norm that everyone speaks English. There are language
schools in Merida, Caracas, Puerto la Cruz and the island of Margarita.
Even a week of lessons can make a big difference.
Rule of thumb
(in all of Latin America):
"If you speak English, all doors will
open. If you speak Spanish, hearts will open too."
It is
therefore advisable to read the Spanish phrasebook.
The currency of Venezuela is the Bolívar Fuerte (BsF), which replaced the old bolivar on January 1, 2008. Currently, Venezuela has a strict exchange control for currencies. There are three official exchange rates for one US dollar, depending on the item, they are 6.3BsF per 1Us$ for food imports (still in force, only and exclusively for food imported by the government), 12.9Bsf per 1Us$ for the rest of imports (This no longer applies to these transactions) and 49.9Bsf per 1Us$ for other sectors of the economy (it was replaced by 1001.53Bfs per 1Us$, the latter being the referential exchange rate for a tourist who wishes to sell their currencies in the country.
When visiting and touring Venezuela, do not stop acquiring handicrafts, Venezuelan artisans stand out for the elaboration of basketry, wood carving, rock sculpture, muralism, the elaboration of rag dolls, wooden toys, rugs, fabrics, bronze works and other metals, goldsmithing, naive painting, musical instruments, as well as an endless number of other objects worked by hand. You can find very good pieces at a very good price among artisans who make them, generally they are located on the sides of national highways.
The typical food is the pabellón (shredded meat, white rice and black
beans that can be accompanied by fried plantains). The arepa is the most
popular food, in addition to other dishes, certain states have their own
dishes, as is the case from Zulia with its patacón, Miranda with its
tequeños, eastern Venezuela with its empanadas, Mérida with its breads
and Andean arepas, the plains with its Creole pavilion, among others.
Traveling the paths of Venezuelan gastronomy is knowing a world of
unforgettable flavors, colors and aromas. Each dish in our kitchen
carries with it a story, a hidden feeling. It can be assured that our
history developed parallel to the heat of the Venezuelan stoves, as time
has passed customs and dreams have changed, history continues its
course, but in each new creation in our kitchen the root of our
ancestors, that magical touch of our natives, that range of spices and
flavors from the colony... Venezuelan cuisine is the expression of our
color, our seasoning, our overflowing joy. Like us, the food is varied,
mixed, full of color and flavor. Among other dishes that predominate in
Venezuela are cachapa, made with ground yellow tender corn, which is
usually accompanied with white cheese and fried pork.
For
Christmas or December party, the Christmas table usually has hallacas,
buns, pork leg, ham bread, stuffed turkey, chicken salad and sweet milk,
figs, icacos, grapefruit, cashew (cash fruit), among others.
Venezuela is the second largest consumer of pasta in the world, just
behind Italy itself.
Venezuela has the emergency telephone number 171, however, as of
January 2014 911 was implemented, both currently work.
Venezuela
is the country with the second highest homicide rate in the world, with
Caracas, its capital, being the most violent city on the planet. People
follow a schedule where generally 10:00 pm is the maximum time for a
healthy enjoyment in the street. The transport system stops working and
the premises close at approximately this time.
Despite them, you
can enjoy the nightlife in areas like Las Mercedes, Altamira and
Florida, where you can find restaurants, discos, liquor stores, theaters
and endless establishments for all tastes. But you must take into
account that there is no public transport at night, so you must have
your own transport or private transport awarded to the Hotel where you
are staying.
. The US State Department and the Canadian
Government have warned foreign visitors that they may be subject to
armed robbery, kidnapping and murder in Venezuela.
Due to the
insecurity situation, various countries have recommended that their
citizens take additional security measures when visiting Venezuela, such
as avoiding going out at night.
By phone
The numerical country code is +58. For example: +58 212
1234567 to call Caracas.
Emergency calls
For emergency calls
you can call the number 171 for free and 911 also works with some
operators in Venezuela.
Mobile phones
In Venezuela there are
three main companies that offer lines for mobile or cell phones, these
are; Movilnet, a public company, and Movistar and Digitel, private
companies.
By mail
The public company for sending letters and
small packages is IPOSTELinfoeditar
There are also very important
private companies such as MRW, ZOOM, DHL, Domesa, Tealca, Serex, among
others.
1 of January New Year
January 14: Festivities of the Divina
Pastora
February 12: Youth Day
March 21: Anniversary of the
abolition of slavery
April 19: Independence Movement Day
May 1:
Labor Day
July 5: Independence Day
July 24: Simón Bolívar's
birthday
September 8: Birth of the Virgin Mary, festivities of the
Virgen del Valle and Our Lady of Coromoto
October 12: Day of
indigenous resistance
December 8: Immaculate Conception Day
25th
December, Christmas
December 31 end of year
Citizens of the following countries do not need a visa to visit
Venezuela for tourist purposes only for a maximum of 90 days: Andorra,
Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Barbados, Belgium,
Belize, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Denmark, Dominica,
Spain, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Grenada, Hong Kong, Iceland,
Iran (maximum 15 days), Ireland, Italy, Jamaica, Japan, Lithuania,
Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Malaysia, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands,
Netherland Antilles, Nevis, New Zealand, Netherlands, Paraguay, Poland,
Portugal, Russia, San Marino, Spain, Saint Kitts, Saint Lucia, Saint
Vincent and the Grenadines, Sweden, Switzerland, Taiwan, Trinidad and
Tobago, Kingdom United States, United States and Uruguay.
In
Caracas, passengers go through immigration in the arrival hall before
proceeding to baggage claim. The officers will review your passport and
may ask questions. If a customs official or someone asks you about the
purpose of your visit, tell them that you are only there for visiting or
sightseeing purposes. At baggage claim, you'll be asked to match the
baggage tag on your flight ticket to the barcode on your bag before
handing over your tax form to customs officials.
There will be
many people who will approach you after you arrive and offer to help you
find a taxi or exchange currency. It is better not to interact with
anyone who approaches you. Even airport officials with proper
identification may try to take you to other areas of the airport to
exchange currency on the black market. When taking a taxi from the
airport, always set a price before getting in the taxi and only use
taxis that have the official yellow oval stamp.
By plane
Simón
Bolívar International Airport (also known as Maiquetía airport), (IATA:
CCS) is the most important in Venezuela, located in the State of Vargas
thirty minutes from the capital.
by car
Venezuela has road
connections with Colombia and Brazil.
by car
Venezuela has highways to which is added a network of
highways that cover the national territory.
By plane
Venezuela
has a network of international and national airports, including:
Simón Bolívar International Airport (CCS), located in Maiquetía, Vargas
state.
La Chinita International Airport (MAR), located in Maracaibo,
Zulia state.
Arturo Michelena International Airport (VLN), located in
Valencia, Carabobo state.
Santiago Mariño Caribbean International
Airport (PMV), located in Porlamar, Nueva Esparta state.
Antonio José
de Sucre International Airport (CUM), located in Cumaná, Sucre state.
Juan Vicente Gómez International Airport (SVZ), located in San Antonio
del Táchira, Táchira state.
Santo Domingo International Airport
(SVSO), located in Santo Domingo, Táchira state.
Oriente General José
Antonio Anzoátegui International Airport (BLA), located in Barcelona,
Anzoátegui state.
Jacinto Lara International Airport (BRM), located
in Barquisimeto, Lara state.
Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonso International
Airport (EVG), located in El Vigía, Mérida state.
Manuel Piar
International Airport (PZO), located in Puerto Ordaz, Bolívar state.
José Tadeo Monagas International Airport (MUN), located in Maturín,
Monagas state.
Josefa Camejo International Airport (SVJC), located in
Punto Fijo, Falcón state.
Francisco García de Hevia International
Airport (LFR), located in La Fría, Táchira state.
Bartolomé Salom
International Airport (PBL) located in Puerto Cabello, Carabobo state.
In 1498, as part of his third voyage, Admiral Christopher Columbus
sailed near the Orinoco Delta, and then entered the Gulf of Paria.
Columbus in his letter to the Catholic Monarchs, expresses having
arrived at the "earthly paradise", and confused by the unusual
brackishness of the waters, writes:
...I return to my purpose
concerning the Land of Grace, the river and lake that I found there, so
great that it can be called a sea rather than a lake, because a lake is
a place of water, and since it is great it is called a sea, which is why
the one from Galilee and the one who Died are called in this way. And I
say that if this river does not come from the Earthly Paradise, it comes
and comes from the infinite earth, from the Southern Continent, which
has not been heard of until now; but I am very settled in my soul that
where I said, in the Land of Grace, there is the Earthly Paradise.
Columbus named these paradisiacal places as "Tierra de Gracia", an
expression that has prevailed to refer to the country par excellence.
But the following year, an expedition commanded by Alonso de Ojeda
traveled the coast of the territory until reaching the entrance of the
current Lake of Maracaibo, in a gulf located between the Paraguaná and
La Guajira peninsulas. On that journey, the crew observed houses built
by the Añú indians, erected on wooden piles that protruded from the
water. These stilts reminded Américo Vespucci of the city of Venice
-Venezia, in Italian-, as he stated in a letter to Piero de' Medici. It
was this motive that inspired Ojeda to give the name of Venezziola
(Little Venice), and then Hispanicized "Venezuela" to the region and the
gulf in which they had made the discovery, and thus received the name of
Gulf of Venezuela. The name coined by the explorer would then cover the
entire territory. Later the region was also known as the Mainland, for
being the first non-insular region of the continent to be explored by
Europeans.
Probably the popularization of the name "Little
Venice", in Europe, is due to the concession made to the commercial
house of the Welsers to explore and govern part of the territory of
South America. The name "Klein-Venedig" appears in several historical
documents and maps as a German translation of Venezuela. In fact Juan
de Castellanos in his Elegies attributes the name to Ambrosio Alfinger:
And Venezuela from Venice comes
That such a name gave him by
excellence
The German, saying it suits him.
However the name
was already in use before the arrival of the Germans.
The climate of Venezuela is determined by the alternation of moist equatorial air masses in calm weather in summer and dry trade winds in winter. Temperatures change little during the year and depend mainly on the altitude of the area. Coastal areas are distinguished by exhausting heat and high air humidity, at higher elevations temperatures are lower and conditions are more comfortable for human habitation. That is why all major cities are located at an altitude of 600 to 1850 meters above sea level. Above 1800 m, the climate is much cooler and close to the climate of temperate latitudes. At altitudes above 3,000 m, it is so cold that farming is almost impossible, and sheep breeding is the main agricultural activity. More than three quarters of the country's area is characterized by the rainy season, which lasts from May to November. Precipitation varies from 280 mm on the Caribbean coast to 2000 mm or more at the southern end of Lake Maracaibo and on the windward slopes of the mountains and the Guiana Plateau. The dry season lasts from December to April.
The territory of Venezuela, like most countries of South America, is
diverse in terms of absolute heights, the amount of precipitation and
other environmental conditions. This explains the heterogeneity of the
vegetation cover and the richness of the country's flora.
Venezuela has about 105 protected areas that cover about 26% of the
country's continental, marine and insular surface.
Several
floristic regions can be distinguished. On the north coast, the flora is
typically Caribbean, with a variety of legume trees, numerous cacti,
species of Capparia, Jacquinia and Ziziphus. The Venezuelan Andes is a
continuation of the Andean region of the west of South America. It is
characterized by the vegetation of the paramo (high mountain meadows)
and temperate forests of Colombia, in particular Espeletia, Geranium,
Ceroxylon, Cinchona, Miconia and Gentiana. The flora of the richly
vegetated Orinoco Basin has its origins in the more southerly uplands
and rainforests. Plantations of exotic species, such as sugar cane and
coffee tree, are widespread here. Many families are well represented,
but legumes and palms stand out against the background of cereals. A
significant part of the southern regions of the country is similar in
flora to the Amazon.
Economically important species grow here,
such as Hevea brazilian and rubber-bearing castilla, as well as the rope
palm, from which coarse, dark fibers (piassava) are obtained. The most
interesting floristic province is small in area and occupies the flat
tops of the sandstone mountains of the Serra Pacaraima, running along
the southern border of the country from the Roraima massif at the
junction of Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil west to Mount Duida near the
Casiquiare River, which connects the upper reaches of the Orinoco with
the upper reaches of the Rio Negro. This is a relic zone, so ancient
that its closest floristic connections can be traced only with some
hills in the south of Brazil, and more distant ones with the Andean
region, the mountains of the Cuban region of Oriente and West Africa.
Many narrowly endemic heathers, madders, bromeliads and cypresses grow
here.
The Orinoco drainage basin occupies approximately
four-fifths of the territory of Venezuela. The area of the llanos
north of the river is a vast thicket of tall grasses interspersed with
savannahs, palm groves and light forests. In many places grasslands are
prevented from overgrowing by means of frequent burning. The forests,
which occupy significant areas here, are of the tropical deciduous type
and are similar to the monsoon forests of the tropics of the Old World.
Closer to the Caribbean coast, they become drier and gradually acquire
the character of thorny thickets with numerous cacti and thorny legumes.
In the south and east of the country, along the borders with Brazil and
Guyana, these deciduous forests are in many places replaced by a typical
Amazonian rainforest of tall evergreen trees with a closed canopy of
numerous lianas and little undergrowth. Forest areas are interspersed
with savannahs. Small areas of similar rainforest are found in the north
of the country, mostly at the southern tip of Lake Maracaibo. The slopes
of the Venezuelan Andes are covered with dense and impenetrable moss
forest, also called mountain rain or cloud forest. This is the belt of
cinchona (Cinchona), often considered temperate in climate. Above the
tree line are treeless paramos dominated by bizarre Espeletia species,
shrubs and cushion plants. These high mountain communities are striking
with their many bright colors that make them look like huge alpine
gardens. Overgrazing has degraded the natural vegetation to scrub
wasteland in many places.
In Venezuela, there are jaguar, puma, ocelot, bush dog, taira close to martens, otters, monkeys, pigs, coypu, tenacious porcupine, tapir and peccaries. There are also deer and opossums. Crocodiles, alligators and turtles are common in many rivers. Boa constrictors, other snakes and lizards are abundant in the jungle. In the lowlands there are many cranes, herons, storks, ducks and other water game, and in the mountains - birds of prey.
On August 19, 2007,
President Chavez, speaking on his TV show, proposed changing the
Venezuelan time zone. The Minister of Science and Technology of
Venezuela, Hector Navarro, then announced that the transition to the new
time will be carried out in mid-September 2007, it will move half an
hour ahead of the current time (from UTC-4 to UTC-4:30), will bring the
start of work into line and the study of Venezuelans with daylight hours
and "will have a beneficial effect on their health and well-being."
The UTC-4:30 time zone was already in use in Venezuela from 1912 to
1964.
Planned for September 24, 2007, the time change was delayed
due to "bureaucratic formalities with international organizations".
January 2008 was announced as the new time changeover time.
On
November 26, 2007, the Decree of the President of Venezuela was issued
on the transition to a new time zone from December 9, 2007.
Chavez's main motive for changing the country's time zone in 2007 is
said to be anti-Americanism, which is confirmed by his statements about
the "need to abandon the time imposed by American imperialism."
The pre-Hispanic history of Venezuela refers to the local cultural
developments of the current territory of the Republic of Venezuela prior
to the conquest and colonization by Spain. The first humans settled in
what we know today as Venezuela about 30,000 years ago. That stage is
divided into four periods: Paleoindian (30,000 BC-5000 BC), Mesoindian
(5000 BC-1000 BC), Neoindian (1000 BC-1498) and Indo-Hispanic (1499 to
the present). The Paleoindian and Mesoindian periods are distinguished
by the development of tools for hunting large animals such as the
megatherium, the mastodon and the glyptodon; as well as the subsequent
development of fishing techniques and navigation to the Caribbean
islands.
During the Neo-Indian period, an important development
of indigenous agriculture, architecture and ceramics is observed:
structures such as embankments, elevations, dams, terraces,
canalizations and vaults for food were built; they also acquired
experience and knowledge about the natural cycles of the local flora and
fauna, which allowed a better use of resources. Additionally, they
practiced the carving of sculptures and ceramic works, which highlights
the series of the Venus of Tacarigua found near the lake of Valencia and
ceramic ornaments in the Andean region, belonging to the Carache
culture.
Among the most important tribes, the Timoto-Cuicas
located in the Andes and culturally but not linguistically linked to the
Chibchas stood out; on the other hand, the Caribs were distributed in
the eastern and central regions of the country in Guayana, part of the
Zulia and los Llanos, who after territorial conflicts acquired the
northern coast of South America and spread to the Antilles; the
Arawakos, settled in part of the regions of what is now the Amazonas
state, a good part of the west, central west and part of the coasts.
Some peoples of Arawak descent are the Wayúu, settled in the west of the
country towards the north, and the Caquetíos, who populated the north of
the current Falcón state and who were displaced by the conquistadors
towards the western plains. There were also minor migrations of
independent groups that populated the Orinoco River basin and other
restricted areas of the country.
The predominant materials for
the construction of houses used by the indigenous people of Venezuela
were mud, straw or palm leaves to build houses, such as stilts built
with wood, reeds and straw. The Timoto-Cuicas, used the rock as the main
architectural material. Seashells were used for ordinary commercial
exchange, or barter. The fauna of the prehistoric and pre-Columbian
years consisted of tapirs, saber-toothed tigers, giant armadillos, among
others. With the arrival of the Spaniards, numerous ethnic groups were
found in Venezuela that spoke Caribbean, Arawak, Chibcha and
Tupi-Guarani languages. In addition, a very elaborate mythology was
identified, and the cosmogony of tribes such as the Maquititare that
bore similarities with the biblical Genesis.
Archaeological
excavations have revealed evidence of pre-Hispanic cultures in
Venezuela. A remarkable discovery was made in the Unare River basin,
near the town of Onoto, in the Anzoátegui state during the construction
of a dam, where dozens of large lithic spheres were discovered, some up
to two meters in diameter. Research has determined that they are not of
natural origin, due to the lashing and ornamentation marks, in addition
to the percussion points characteristic of this type of sculpture.
Venezuela was first sighted during the third voyage of Christopher
Columbus, on August 1, 1498, when he arrived at the mouth of the Orinoco
River after having passed in front of Trinidad Island. It was the first
time that the Spaniards touched mainland mainland, taking into account
that in the first two trips they arrived to insular territories.
Columbus observed the currents of the Orinoco and the jungles, and
continued his journey along the Gulf of Paria, skirting the coast near
the island of Margarita. In 1499, Alonso de Ojeda made a more extensive
expedition along the coast, and reached Cabo de la Vela on the Guajira
peninsula after passing through the Gulf of Paria, the Paraguaná
peninsula and the Gulf of Venezuela.
Shortly after, the Spanish
Empire undertook the colonization of the territory with the
establishment of the ephemeral governorate of Coquibacoa and of cities
and trade routes between the mainland and the metropolis. Demarcations
were made in order to create a jurisdictional structure that
materialized with the creation of the provinces of Margarita (1525),
Venezuela (1527), Trinidad (1532), Nueva Andalucía and Guayana (1568)
and later that of Maracaibo (1676). In 1528 King Charles I issued the
Capitulation of Madrid, temporarily leasing part of the province of
Venezuela to the Welser family and the Fugger family, which gave way to
the creation of the Klein-Venedig, one of the German governorates in
America. However, the Spaniards faced several rebellions by the local
indians. The most outstanding were the one commanded by the cacique
Guaicaipuro in 1560 and the uprising of the Quiriquires in 1600, and
even of his own countrymen, such as Lope de Aguirre and his "marañones"
from Peru.
The colonial order was finally implemented towards the
end of the sixteenth century with the chapter and the Catholic Church.
Religious orders such as the Jesuits of Spain and the Augustinian
Recollects of the Philippines were crucial in pacifying and serving the
native and immigrant inhabitants of the colony. The Augustinian
Recollect Order in particular produced the first beatified person from
Venezuela, María de San José Alvarado. At the same time, a miscegenation
was promoted among the inhabitants of the provinces, which would end up
defining the social profile of the country. Trade and the extraction of
mineral and natural resources flourished, highlighting the profuse
export of cocoa, indigo and tobacco, at the same time that the provinces
faced pirate attacks such as that of Henry Morgan to Maracaibo in 1669.
Given the boom of smuggling through the region in the following years,
it was decided to create the Real Compañía Gipuzkoa in 1728 to exercise
the commercial monopoly.
The existing provinces, then governed
alternately by the Royal Audiencia of Santo Domingo and that of Santafé
de Bogotá, became part of the Viceroyalty of New Granada in 1717. With
the rise to power of the Bourbon House, King Carlos III formed a single
autonomous entity by creating the Captaincy General of Venezuela in
1777. This new political union would be consolidated with the creation
of the Real Audiencia of Caracas in 1786.
On the other hand,
territorial losses were experienced during this period: from 1615 the
region west of the Essequibo River began to be invaded by the Dutch, who
also took Aruba, Curacao and Bonaire militarily due to the Eighty Years'
War, between 1634 and 1636. Subsequently, the British took over the
islands of Trinidad and Tobago after the signing of the Treaty of Amiens
in 1802, towards the end of the French Revolutionary Wars.
At the end of the eighteenth century, a sum of factors such as the
introduction of encyclopedism and the Enlightenment, the independence of
the United States, the French Revolution, the antipathy towards
political-economic centralism with the metropolis and the Napoleonic
invasion of Spain, inspired the first attempts at independence in
Venezuela. Already in 1748 the cocoa farmer Juan Francisco de León had
revolted, with some success, against the Gipuzkoan Company. One of the
first massive armed rebellions was the one unleashed in 1795 by the
Zambo José Leonardo Chirino, in the west of the country, in the town of
Coro.
Another conspiracy was produced by Manuel Gual and José
María España in 1797, this being the first of popular roots. Both
attempts were unsuccessful, with their respective leaders executed. For
his part, the Creole Francisco de Miranda, in 1806 twice tried to invade
Venezuelan territory by the Coro Sail with an armed expedition from
Haiti, and supported by the British. His incursions ended in failures
due to the religious preaching against him and the indifference of the
population. The subsequent Conspiracy of the Mantuans had the same fate.
The date of April 19, 1810 marked the beginning of the Venezuelan
revolution. Vicente Emparan, by then the Captain General of Venezuela,
was dismissed by the Caracas Cabildo. This led to the formation of the
Supreme Junta of Caracas, the first form of autonomous government. The
Junta ruled until March 2, 1811, the day the First National Congress was
installed, an entity that appointed a triumvirate composed of Cristóbal
Mendoza, Juan Escalona and Baltasar Padrón. Months later, on July 5 of
that year, the Declaration of Independence was finally signed. But this
First Republic collapsed because of the royalist reaction. In July 1812,
Miranda, Commander-in-Chief of the newly created army, capitulated in
San Mateo. According to Pedro Gual, Miranda thought that the
capitulation would buy him time to organize another front, possibly in
New Granada, where the independence movement was already underway.
The movement would have new impetus in 1813, when Simón Bolívar,
after gaining control of Cúcuta, undertook the Admirable Campaign, an
armed expedition through the Andes and the western region, together with
Atanasio Girardot and José Félix Ribas. After making public the
controversial Decree of War to the Death, he faced the Royalists in
several battles along the route to the capital. At the end of the
campaign, he triumphantly entered Caracas, where he was titled as a
Liberator, and where the Second Republic was proclaimed, although
fighting continued in other parts of the country. However, the following
year a rebellion loyal to the Crown by José Tomás Boves broke out. The
violent thrust of his troops forced the population to undertake the
emigration to the East, as well as the expulsion of the patriots from
the Mainland, thus causing the fall of the Second Republic.
From
the New Granada, Bolivar tried a re-edition of the Admirable Campaign to
rescue the republic, but due to lack of support he moved to Jamaica to
get British support, and then to Haiti, where the rest of the patriot
leaders took refuge. There the expedition from the Keys to the Mainland
was planned, which sailed in March 1816. After taking the island of
Margarita, the Republicans continued attacking Carúpano and Maracay, but
were repulsed. In a second expedition, Bolívar took command of the
Republican troops stationed in Guyana, with which he managed to capture
Angostura and from where he refounded the institutions, creating the
Third Republic. For his part, José Antonio Páez carried out very
important military operations to liberate the central region of the
country under the command of his llaneros.
The war on the plain
continued until 1819. That year, Bolívar attempted the reorganization of
the state with the installation of the Angostura Congress, the result of
which was the creation of Gran Colombia. In 1820, the Treaty of
Armistice and Regularization of the War was signed, ending the war to
the death and ceasing hostilities until April 28, 1821. On June 24 of
that same year, Bolívar faced Miguel de la Torre in the Battle of
Carabobo, which resulted in the Republican victory. This victory meant
the liquidation of the Royalist troops in Venezuela, leaving remnants
that would be defeated in the naval battle of Lake Maracaibo in 1823.
With the seizure of the Puerto Cabello fortress by the liberating army,
independence was finally sealed.
Gran Colombia, according to its
Fundamental Law, integrated the former Captaincy General of Venezuela
with the Viceroyalty of New Granada and the Free Province of Guayaquil,
which would later be joined by the Audiencia of Quito. The congress
elected in Angostura moved to Villa del Rosario, where a Constitution
was approved in August 1821, and in which the political organization of
this state was defined. Bolívar was elected president by a majority, and
Francisco de Paula Santander was made vice president. Bolívar would
continue his liberation campaigns in the south, in which he would
promote the liberation of Peru and the creation of Bolivia.
The
new state regulated over trade and public institutions, and also decreed
the abolition of slavery.39 But the discrepancy between Bolivarians
(centralists) and Santander (federalists) strained the internal order.
Coupled with the economic crisis, the lack of infrastructure, the
idiosyncratic differences and interests, and the desire for autonomy on
the part of Venezuelans for their territory, secession germinated. The
Cosiata of 1826, led by Páez, forged this disagreement of the department
of Venezuela with the government of Bogotá. To calm the convulsion,
Bolivar ruled by decree since 1828, but this did not prevent the
separation of Venezuela, which finally manifested itself in November
1829. In May 1830 the Congress of Valencia (provisional capital of the
country on the occasion of the congress) was installed to make decisions
regarding the steps to be followed by the District of Venezuela in view
of the growing and continuous distancing with the Central Government.
This ended in the secession of Venezuela from Gran Colombia and the
birth of the State of Venezuela, when a new constitution was adopted.
The main political leader and strongman of Venezuela at its dawn as a
republic was José Antonio Páez, who was sworn in as President in April
1831, and his Vice President was Diego Bautista Urbaneja. Paez
represented the Conservative Party, composed mostly of military veterans
of the War of Independence. There was relative peace and the economy
showed a recovery stimulated by the Freedom of Contract Act of 1834 and
coffee exports.40 In 1835 he delegated power to José María Vargas, the
first civilian to lead the country. This was not to the liking of the
liberal-thinking military, who rebelled against the government in the
Reform Revolution. Vargas abdicated in 1836, and his term was terminated
by Carlos Soublette.
Paez, after having defeated a liberal
rebellion, was elected again in 1838. He faced the global economic
crisis of that year, which hit Venezuela hard, and the growing liberal
opposition represented by Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, at the same time
initiating territorial disputes against the British over the Essequibo
issue. Soublette was president again in 1843, and in 1847 General José
Tadeo Monagas was elected with great support, but he later broke with
the conservatives. The attempt of these to depose him led to the attack
on the Congress of 1848. The General ensured that his brother José
Gregorio Monagas was made president in 1851, who proclaimed the
definitive abolition of slavery in 1854. José Tadeo returned to power in
1855, but his authoritarian regime saw its end in the March Revolution
of 1858, commanded by Julián Castro. The latter was appointed
provisional president of the Republic at the Convention of Valencia and
later interim president, making Valencia again the provisional capital
of the country.
The decrees of the new government created
discontent in liberals, and the instability made the outbreak of an
armed conflict known as the Federal War imminent. The Cry of the
Federation marked its beginning, and it developed like a guerrilla war.
The liberal federalists won important victories thanks to their leader
Ezequiel Zamora, who dies in San Carlos in strange circumstances. He
was replaced by Juan Crisóstomo Falcón, after which the central forces
were reduced. In 1863 the Car Treaty was signed, which meant the
liberals' access to power and the end of a war that decimated the
population. Despite this result, new regional caudillismos were formed
with their own army. Falcón assumed the presidency and promulgated his
Decree of Guarantees, which abolished the death penalty. This provision,
ratified in the new constitution, makes Venezuela the oldest Moderna
state to implement it.
Falcón sowed rancor among both
conservatives and liberal dissent, causing both sides to unite to
overthrow him in 1867 with the Blue Revolution. An army led by Miguel
Antonio Rojas rose up in the central region, with former President José
Tadeo Monagas in the eastern region. Given the difficult situation,
Falcón delegated power to Manuel Ezequiel Bruzual. But when encircling
the capital, Rojas signed the Treaty of Antimano, recognizing the
government and assuming the military command of the country. The
Orientals, seeing the treaty as a betrayal, continued their campaign
towards Caracas, which they finally captured, thus establishing the
government of the Blues, Guillermo Tell Villegas and José Ruperto
Monagas.
Antonio Guzmán Blanco, son of Antonio Leocadio Guzmán, plotted
together with his father the return to power of the liberals. Fleeing
due to the rejection of the government, he organized an invasion in
Curacao supported by regional caudillos such as Joaquín Crespo and
Francisco Linares Alcántara. In 1870 he landed on the coast and took up
positions in the center-west of the country while increasing his forces.
He took Caracas in April, so his accession to power is known as the
April Revolution.
Once he became president, he implemented
measures aimed at modernizing the country and establishing the
definitive order, on a platform called "Yellow Liberalism". He created
the Conservatory of Fine Arts, issued the Decree of Public and
Compulsory Education, made the Venezuelan peso the national currency,
promoted agriculture, organized the first population census of the
country, improved the infrastructure and initiated an urban
transformation of Caracas, to which he wanted to give Parisian
qualities, without abandoning a centralist and authoritarian character.
He fought several caudillista uprisings, managing to calm the turbulent
landscape of insurrections. His policy was a promotion of the cult of
the heroes of the past, especially Simon Bolivar, as a strategy to unite
the country. Likewise, it weakened the power of the Catholic Church, by
transferring to the State functions that were traditionally performed by
it.
In 1877, he passed the command to Francisco Linares
Alcántara, so that he could continue his work and leave for Europe. But
the rupture of Linares with him and the discontinuation of the
progressive line, provoked the Vindicating Revolution that overthrew him
in 1879. Guzmán Blanco had to return to the country and take back the
reins of government. On this occasion he designated the bolivar as the
national currency, and decreed Gloria al Bravo Pueblo as the national
anthem, in addition to continuing with the political-economic measures
that had been successful. After five years he passed the command to
Joaquín Crespo, but the effects of the introduction of positivism and
the growing opposition of the student sector that gained strength, so
Crespo closed the University, merited a second return of Guzmán. He was
elected by Congress to preside between 1886 and 1888, but retired in
1887, appointing Hermógenes López for the transition.
He was
followed by Juan Pablo Rojas Paúl, who moved away from the centralist
line maintained so far. He created the National Academy of History and
faced anti-Marxist riots. In 1890 Raimundo Andueza Palacio was elected.
His attempt to extend his two-year term caused the Legalist Revolution
of 1892 led by Joaquín Crespo, who gained power and established the
four-year presidency and direct voting. In his leadership, public
resources were misappropriated[citation needed] and there was greater
indebtedness, although he remained popular among his soldiers. His
candidate for successor, Ignacio Andrade, won in the 1897 elections, but
his rival José Manuel Hernández, alias El Mocho, accused fraud and
rebelled in Queipa. Crespo perished in command of his troops, but the
uprising was defeated. The final balance of the nineteenth century was
economic recession, but advances in culture, technology and urbanism.
The military and former deputy Cipriano Castro accused Andrade of
violating the constitution of 1893, so he organized from Tachira a
military uprising of a restorative nature together with Juan Vicente
Gómez to overthrow him. Castro came to power in October. However, he
ratified some ministers of the defeated government, including Andueza
Palacio in the cabinet. In 1901, he was elected President by the
National Constituent Assembly. Like his predecessors, because of his
authoritarianism he fought seditions. The most outstanding of these was
the Liberating Revolution, which culminated with the triumph of Castro
in 1903, being the last of the great caudillista rebellions. His
management followed anti-imperialism, refusing to cancel the debt with
the United Kingdom and Germany, which caused the naval blockade imposed
by these countries.
Castro became ill in 1908, and left the
country to undergo treatment. Days later, his vice president and friend
Juan Vicente Gómez perpetrated a coup d'état and banned his return to
Venezuela. From 1909, Gómez would exercise his government from the city
of Maracay, even moving his official residence that was located in the
city of Caracas. That is why with the Federal Constitution of 1909,
ministers, diplomats, and all government employees had to go weekly to
Maracay to report. Gómez was officially president since 1910 and
subsequently appointed for seven-year terms established by a new
constitution, interspersed with puppet governments that acted as a
facade. He treated without mercy those who questioned him.[citation
needed] Many political prisoners served as forced laborers, building
roads all over the country. To resist student protests, he closed the
Central University of Venezuela for ten years. He enacted the first
Labor Law, created banks for workers, started oil exploitation and
canceled the foreign debt. The most remembered opposition movement of
its time was led by university students in 1928, from which new
political leaders would emerge. He also stopped a military coup and the
invasion of General Roman Delgado Chalbaud with the German steamer Falke
in 1929. His greatest contribution was the pacification of the country
by ending the caudillos and creating the Military Academy of Venezuela,
as the base of a consolidated National Army. The economic dynamics
marked by the beginning of oil exploitation in this period would be the
cause of rural population migrations to the large urban centers since
the 1930s.
Gómez died in 1935, leaving a pacified, organized and
solvent country. General Eleazar López Contreras was appointed in
charge of the Presidency until 1936, and then president for seven years.
With him the transition to democracy begins: he decrees amnesty for
political prisoners and restores freedom of the press. That year a
large public demonstration in front of the Miraflores Palace demanded
greater civil liberties, to which López agreed in part with his February
Program. He reduced the presidential term to 5 years, and focused his
policies on the creation of public health assistance programs. In
addition, he completed works of great importance such as the creation of
the National Guard of Venezuela, the opening of the Museum of Fine Arts
and the Science Museum in 1938, and the creation of the Central Bank of
Venezuela in 1939.
At the end of his term in 1941, Congress
appointed Isaías Medina Angarita president, a military man who enacted a
Hydrocarbon Law in 1943 that brought more monetary dividends to the
country, limiting multinationals. During his administration, women's
suffrage and the legalization of parties were decreed, all exiles were
allowed to return and the remaining political prisoners were released.
He created the first Venezuelan cedulation plan, activated an agrarian
reform, supported the Allies of World War II, attempted the annexation
of the Netherlands Antilles and signed the 1941 Boundary Treaty between
Colombia and Venezuela. Although he accelerated the path to democracy,
there were still opponents such as Rómulo Betancourt and his Democratic
Action party. A military coup was hatched from within it in 1945 with
the help of a military group led by Lieutenant Colonels Marcos Pérez
Jiménez, Luis Llovera Páez and Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, who disagreed
with the type of presidential election used and with many of Medina's
measures.
After the coup, a democratic government was organized although
dominated by the Democratic Action party for the next three years. A new
constitution was approved in 1947 that granted direct suffrage and
women's suffrage. In a new election, the famous writer Rómulo Gallegos
turned out to be the first Venezuelan president elected in that way,
assuming office in 1948. Despite that, Gallegos did not complete his
term after a coup d'état months later brought to power a military junta
composed of the same rebels of three years ago, which abrogated the
constitution. Of the triumvirs, Delgado Chalbaud was a candidate to
become president of the country after the Junta called for elections,
but he was kidnapped and murdered in 1950. After the incident, Germán
Suárez Flamerich was appointed provisional president.
Pérez
Jiménez remained as Minister of Defense until 1952, the date of the
votes for a Constituent Assembly. In the course of the day, seeing that
the opposition URD reached the majority of votes, the ruling Independent
Electoral Front ignored the results and suspended the elections. Two
days later, Pérez Jiménez was proclaimed as president. His government
promoted a constitution in 1953, outlawed the opposition and curtailed
civil liberties. Its main police agency, the National Security
Directorate, arrested and detained opponents in the Guasina Island
concentration camp and also executed them. Supported by the United
States for being part of the oil distribution network and for its
anti-communism, his regime was also distinguished by a visionary and
technologically cutting-edge infrastructure progress unparalleled for
the country. That, the special promotion of European immigration and the
completion of complex public works projects, were framed as the practice
of a nationalist thought known as the New National Ideal. Despite this,
the antipathy generated by his repressive acts and his intentions to
perpetuate himself in power, increased the discontent against him.
On the other hand, the economic indicators of Venezuela during the
government of Marcos Pérez Jiménez, showed a growing country, with low
inflation and high levels of employment. During his mandate under the
doctrine of the "New National Ideal" he carried out the transformation
of the country, going from having rural populations to being one of the
references of modernism in Latin America. During this period, the main
communication routes were built, linking both the west, center and east
of the country, as well as industrial conglomerates and large monuments.
Pérez Jiménez consolidated from 1952 to 1958 a good part of the
infrastructure of Venezuela and its capital city. His vision of a modern
Caracas turned the city into a dispersed and automobile-driven
metropolis, crossed by highways and characterized by Moderna
architecture. This architectural legacy is today a residual topography
of a Caracas that in the 1950s was glimpsed as the Moderna capital of
Latin America.
The 1950s are considered an economic boom that was
based on oil production. This went from 1.8 million barrels per day
(quoted at $2.14) to 2.77 million barrels per day (quoted at $2.65),
according to data from the Ministry of Energy and Mines. In turn,
according to the United Nations Statistics Division in its Statistical
Yearbook of 1964, the growth of the Venezuelan economy from 1952 to 1958
was the highest in the Western Hemisphere, above powers such as the
United States, and the United Kingdom. On the other hand, employment
rose 21% between 1952 and 1956, while the highest inflation rate was
1.6% in 1954.
In 1957 a plebiscite was organized to define his
permanence for another five-year period in power. The official bulletins
gave him the victory, although it was understood in all sectors of the
country that it was a fraud. This produced a split in the Armed Forces,
leading to a failed rebellion on New Year's Day 1958. But the consequent
political crisis destabilized the bases of the regime, concluding with
his deposition by a civic-military movement on January 23, forcing him
to flee to the Dominican Republic to move to Spain. Once the rebellion
was successful, a Civic-Military Government Junta was organized, chaired
by Rear Admiral Wolfgang Larrazábal. Months later, the Punto Fijo Pact
was signed, which provided for the alternation of Democratic Action,
COPEI and URD in power, to direct the future politics of the country,
excluding other left-wing parties such as the PCV. The election for
President ended up opting for Rómulo Betancourt.
The new democratic era brought changes at the political and economic
level. During his government, no more concessions were granted to oil
multinationals, the Venezuelan Oil Corporation was established, and OPEC
was created in 1960, at the initiative of Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo. An
agrarian reform was implemented and a new constitution was approved in
1961.
The new order had its antagonists. Betancourt suffered an
attack planned by the Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, and the
leftists excluded from the pact started an armed insurgency by
organizing themselves into the Armed Forces of National Liberation,
sponsored by the Communist Party and Fidel Castro. In 1962 they
attempted destabilization via the military corps, with failed revolts in
Carúpano and Puerto Cabello. At the same time, Betancourt promoted an
international doctrine in which he only recognized governments elected
by popular vote.
In the 1963 elections, Raúl Leoni was elected.
His platform consisted of a broad-based coalition of parties,
integrating AD, URD and the FND. Although his government was one of
harmony and general understanding, he had to deal with the continuous
guerrilla attacks. Among these, the invasion of the beaches of
Machurucuto in 1967 stands out, in which Venezuelan and Cuban guerrillas
participated. Seeing that it yielded few fruits, most of the guerrillas
abandoned the armed struggle that year. Leoni's government was also
noted for public works and cultural development.
Rafael Caldera
won the following elections. Before taking office in 1969, the Rupununi
rebellion broke out in Essequiba Guyana, which represented an
opportunity to annex the Essequibo Territory, claimed by Venezuela. In
this context, it signed the Port of Spain Protocol in 1970. He agreed to
a definitive truce with the guerrillas and guaranteed their
reintegration into political life, legalizing the PCV. In 1974 Carlos
Andrés Pérez took over. In those years, the foreign exchange income
increased enormously as a result of the oil crisis of 1973, when the
price of a barrel of oil went sharply from $3 to $12, arriving at the
meaning of Saudi Venezuela, title of a book by Sanín (Alfredo Tarre
Murzi), although the name had been indicated before by Rómulo Betancourt
and Laureano Vallenilla Lanz, JR. In 1975 the iron industry was
nationalized and the following year the oil industry was nationalized,
creating Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA). Both Caldera and Pérez
partially broke with the Betancourt Doctrine.
In 1979, Luis
Herrera Campins was inaugurated as President. He inaugurated multiple
cultural and sports facilities. Although oil revenues continued to rise,
indebtedness in international finance could not be prevented, forcing
adherence to the IMF's opinions. In 1983 the bolivar was devalued on
Black Friday, unleashing a severe economic crisis. In the government of
Jaime Lusinchi, little would be done to counteract it. Corruption
increased and economic policy maintained the rentier line. On the other
hand, in 1987 the incident of the corvette Caldas generated one of the
greatest moments of international tension with Colombia, due to the
dispute over sovereignty over the Gulf of Venezuela between both
nations.
Carlos Andrés Pérez was elected again in 1988 and during
his term he sought to solve the recession by adopting measures that
caused large social protests, the largest being the Caracazo of 1989. In
the same year the first direct elections of governors and regional
mayors took place. Two coup attempts followed in February and November
1992 led by Hugo Chávez, and Pérez was finally impeached by Congress in
1993. Octavio Lepage was provisional President for a few days, until the
historian and parliamentarian Ramón José Velázquez was appointed as
interim.
Caldera came to power for the second time in 1994,
having to handle the severe banking crisis that arose that year. The
collapse and intervention of a dozen banks culminated in the flight of
capital, causing the bankruptcy of companies. To stop the crisis, he
initiated an economic privatization program called Agenda Venezuela, but
the serious economic situation would continue with the decline of the
political parties that had been active since the mid-twentieth century.
The Bolivarian Revolution is the name given by Hugo Chávez and his supporters to the political, ideological and social project that began in 1998, with the election of Chávez as president of the country. According to its supporters, the revolution is based on the ideology of Simón Bolívar, on the doctrines of Simón Rodríguez, who proposed that Latin America invent its own political system, and General Ezequiel Zamora "Lands and Free Men" and "Horror of the Oligarchy", who defended the tenure of land for the peasants who worked it. Its purpose is to promote Hispanic American patriotism and reach a new socialism. One of his first measures was to approve by popular referendum a new constitution in 1999 that, among other things, changed the name of the country to the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela.
Chávez won the 1998 presidential election. He was supported by the
partisan alliance "Patriotic Pole". He promoted a new constitution,
which was approved by referendum in December 1999, and which brought
with it the renewal of Public Power by a National Constituent Assembly
made up of 95% of the ruling party, which called into question the
independence of State powers in some sectors of Venezuelan society.
Through this referendum, the official name of the country changes from
"Republic of Venezuela" to "Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela", in
tribute to the Venezuelan liberator Simón Bolívar.
In 2001,
Chávez enacted 49 laws on land administration, thanks to an
authorization from the National Assembly, within the framework of his
platform called as Bolivarian Revolution, generating conflicts with the
opposition. This led to a national strike called by the Confederation of
Workers of Venezuela (CTV) and the Chamber of Entrepreneurs
(Fedecámaras).
In 2002, a large number of protests began against
the 49 laws. That year, after a massive demonstration in Caracas, on
April 11, 2002, the 2002 coup d'état took place. Faced with an alleged
resignation and arrest of Chávez, Pedro Carmona, leader of Fedecámaras,
proclaimed himself President with the support of the CTV and several
opposition political parties. According to an investigation conducted
by Izquierda Unida, journalist and adviser José Manuel Fernández says
that "Powerful media, in Venezuela and abroad directly and indirectly
supported the coup." As the first act of government, Carmona
disintegrated all the constituted powers and established a de facto
government. That same night Chávez was reinstated, after being rescued
in a commando action on the island where he had been imprisoned. The
opposition then organized a general strike in December 2002 requesting
the resignation of Chávez, joined by many workers of Petróleos de
Venezuela, causing great economic losses for the country. A recall
referendum was then requested, finally held in 2004 and in it, Chávez
was victorious.
Chávez's administration maintained a leftist line
that sought to lead the country towards what he called the Socialism of
the xxi century. He created programs of aid and social development
-Bolivarian Missions. He expressed displeasure with the
political-economic imperialism that, according to his words, was managed
by the United States government. In turn, he strengthened relations with
former rivals of the United States, such as Russia, China and Vietnam,
or ideological rivals, such as Cuba, Iran, Belarus and Syria.
In
2005, the Chavista parties gained control of almost all the governorates
of the country and of the National Assembly, elections to which the
opposition did not attend citing "lack of guarantees". The following
presidential elections were held in December 2006, in which Chávez was
reelected against Manuel Rosales, his direct opponent. He then announced
that he would promote his political project through reforms to the
Constitution, including control of the Armed Forces, new economic
controls and indefinite re-election. In that process, the concession for
an open signal to the RCTV television channel was not renewed, a measure
that generated rejection in part of the population and that led to the
activation of the Venezuelan Student Movement. In December 2007, a
referendum was held on these proposals, which were finally rejected by
the electorate, keeping the Constitution in its 1999 version.
In
November 2008, regional elections were held, in which the ruling United
Socialist Party of Venezuela won 17 of the 22 governorships in dispute.
The opposition, for its part, won the governorship of five of the eight
most populous states in Venezuela. In February 2009, a new referendum
was held on a proposed amendment proposed by Hugo Chávez that would
allow lifting the limits on the reelection of all elected positions
including the president of the Republic, which was approved by the
electorate.
It is estimated that during his government the public
debt multiplied, most of the debt is supported by Sovereign bonds and
PDVSA bonds, other debts to agreements with countries such as China and
Russia and a third group is due to outstanding payments for the
expropriations of transnational corporations, which led to
hyperinflation since 2017.
In the presidential elections of Venezuela for the period 2013-2019,
President Chávez was reelected for a third consecutive term, but because
he died in March 2013 from complications of colon cancer, on April 14,
2013 a new election was held where then Vice President Nicolás Maduro
won a tight victory at the national level giving continuity to the
Bolivarian Revolution. In these elections there were 14,988,563 valid
votes, of which Maduro obtained 7,587,532 (50.61%), and Henrique
Capriles Radonski 7,363,264 (49.1%). The political conflict of 2013 over
the results of the presidential election triggered demonstrations in
Venezuela in 2014, coupled with the economic crisis, a sustained
increase in crime rates nationwide and allegations of corruption in
public bodies.
The 2015 parliamentary elections, which were held
on December 6, 2015, resulted in the victory of the Democratic Unity
Roundtable (MUD), the main opposition movement to the government of
President Nicolás Maduro, with 56.3% of the votes and 112 of the 167
deputies of the National Assembly (including 3 deputies for the
Indigenous Representation to the National Assembly), corresponding to a
qualified majority. However, since its installation on January 5, 2016,
most of the laws approved by the new National Assembly were declared
unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of Justice (TSJ) and only one law
came into force. In a sequence of several sentences since August 1,
2016, the Supreme Court declared in contempt of the Assembly and null
and void all its acts for not disbarring three deputies of the Amazonas
state, whose election is under precautionary suspension for alleged
irregularities. The disincorporation of January 9, 2017 was declared
invalid by the TSJ. With the argument of contempt, the Supreme Court of
Justice assumed several competences that, according to the Constitution,
belong to the National Assembly, such as the approval and extension of
the state of emergency, control of the budget and the right to receive
government accounts. In sentence 156 of March 29, 2017, the
Constitutional Chamber of the Supreme Court warned in a general way
"that as long as the situation of contempt persists... the powers of the
National Assembly shall be exercised directly"by it. After an
intervention by Attorney General Luisa Ortega Díaz who spoke of "several
violations of the constitutional order," the Supreme Court in a ruling
on April 1, 2017 reversed its decision to assume all the functions of
Parliament.
At the request of 20 member countries, the Permanent
Council of the Organization of American States (OAS) in a session on
April 3, 2017 considered "recent events in Venezuela" and urged "the
Government of Venezuela to act to guarantee the separation and
independence of constitutional powers and restore the full authority of
the National Assembly." The session, in which only 21 OAS members were
present, is considered illegal by the governments of Bolivia, Venezuela
and Nicaragua. On April 26, 2017, the OAS Permanent Council, with a
majority of 19 votes, agreed to convene a consultation meeting of
Foreign Ministers to consider the situation in Venezuela. The Maduro
government maintains that the approved call for foreign ministers
violates the OAS Charter and initiated the official process of
Venezuela's withdrawal from the OAS.
In 2019, the presidential
crisis of Venezuela erupts around the legitimacy of who holds the
presidency of the country, after on January 10, 2019, the National
Assembly of Venezuela declared that Nicolás Maduro was usurping the
position of president and Juan Guaidó - as president of the National
Assembly— he will be sworn in as the president in charge of the
country. After assuming the interim presidency, Guaidó proposed three
central objectives for his political strategy: the cessation of the
usurpation of the government of Nicolás Maduro, the establishment of a
transitional government promoted by the National Assembly and the
holding of free and transparent elections. Guaidó was recognized by
more than fifty countries as president in charge of Venezuela, including
the Lima Group, with the exception of Mexico, most countries of the
European Union, the European Parliament, the United States, Australia,
Japan and Israel, among others. In addition, seven countries recognize
the legitimacy of the National Assembly. On the other hand, twenty
countries recognize Maduro, including some ALBA countries such as Cuba
and Nicaragua, as well as allied countries such as China, Turkey and
Russia. While seventeen countries have declared themselves neutral to
this crisis, along with the United Nations Organization and the Vatican.
The current Constitution of Venezuela, approved in a constitutional
referendum on December 15, 1999 and promulgated five days later,
establishes that the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela is constituted as
a social and democratic State of law and justice that "espouses as
superior values of its legal system and its actions, life, liberty,
justice, equality, solidarity, democracy, social responsibility and, in
general, the pre-eminence of human rights, ethics and political
pluralism."
Under the terms established in the Constitution of
the Republic, Venezuela assumes the form of a decentralized federal
State, and is governed by the principles of territorial integrity,
cooperation, solidarity, concurrence and co-responsibility. Its purposes
are the protection and promotion of the person and his humanity, to
guarantee the democratic exercise of the popular will, and the search
for a general welfare State. To achieve these goals, the development of
education and work are indicated as ways.
It is also established
that the form of government is that of a presidential republic, headed
by the President of the Republic, who functions as head of State and
head of the National Executive Branch at the same time. Sovereignty,
which resides in the people, is exercised in two ways: directly through
the Constitution itself and the law, and indirectly, through suffrage,
by the Public Power, whose components are subject to and are due to that
popular sovereignty. All public entities are subject to the provisions
of this Constitution. The President has the power to direct the actions
of the Government.
The national authorities of the State reside in Caracas, the Capital
District, since according to the National Constitution, it is the seat
of the organs of National Public Power. The public administration is at
the service of citizens and is based on the principles of honesty,
participation, speed, effectiveness, efficiency, transparency,
accountability and responsibility, as required by Article 141 of the
Constitution of the Republic.
The National Public Power is
divided into Legislative, Executive, Judicial, Citizen and Electoral;
each of the branches of Public Power has its own functions, but the
organs responsible for its exercise will collaborate with each other in
the realization of the purposes of the State. The National Public Power
is made up of the organs and entities of the State with national
competence that are framed within the Constitution of the Republic:
The legislative power is exercised by an organ of the National
Assembly of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which is a unicameral
parliament that exercises the legislative function — formation,
discussion and sanction of national laws, and of the country's legal
codes—, the function of political control over the National Public
Administration and the Government, and the function of promoting the
organization and citizen participation in matters within its competence.
Since January 2021 it has been composed of 277 deputies elected by
universal, direct and secret suffrage in each federal entity (before
2020 there were 167 deputies). The term of the legislative mandate is
five years and they can be re-elected in accordance with Amendment No. 1
of the Constitution of the Republic.
The executive power is
exercised by the President of the Republic, the Executive Vice
President, the Ministers and the other officials established by the
Constitution of the Republic and the law. The President of the Republic
is elected by direct, secret and universal suffrage for a term of office
lasting 6 years, having the possibility of being re-elected for new
terms. He is the head of State, head of the National Executive Power,
Commander-in-Chief of the Bolivarian National Armed Forces, and directs
the foreign relations of the Republic. The Executive Vice President is a
direct and immediate collaborator of the President. He coordinates the
relations of the National Executive with the National Assembly, presides
over the Federal Government Council and makes up for the temporary
absences of the President of the Republic. The Ministers are direct
organs of the President, and together with the President and the
Vice-president, they make up the Council of Ministers. The Attorney
General of the Republic attends, with the right to voice, the meetings
of the Council of Ministers. Additionally, the President may convene the
Council of State, being a superior organ of consultation of the
Government and the National Public Administration to recommend policies
of national interest in matters of special importance.
The
judicial power is exercised by the organ of the Supreme Court of Justice
and the other courts determined by law. These, together with the Public
Prosecutor's Office, the Public Defence, the criminal investigation
bodies, the judicial assistants and officials, the prison system, the
alternative means of justice, the citizens who participate in the
administration of justice in accordance with the law and the lawyers
authorized to practice, make up the Justice System.
Citizen power
is exercised by an organ of the Republican Moral Council, made up of the
Public Prosecutor's Office, the Office of the Comptroller General of the
Republic, and the Office of the Ombudsman. Any of the highest
authorities of the organs that make up this Power can be elected
president of the Republican Moral Council for one-year terms,
re-electable. Its functions include preventing, investigating and
punishing acts that violate public ethics and administrative morality,
ensuring the proper use of public assets and pre-selecting candidates
for judges of the Supreme Court of Justice.
The Electoral Power
is exercised by an organ of the National Electoral Council, which has as
subordinate organs: the National Electoral Board, the Civil and
Electoral Registration Commission and the Political Participation and
Financing Commission. Its objective is to regulate and manage the
electoral processes as well as the application of the personalization of
suffrage and proportional representation. The CNE maintains, organizes,
directs and supervises the Civil and Electoral Registry. The 1999
Constitution incorporates the figure of the recall referendum for all
popularly elected positions, which can be submitted to a new election in
the middle of the term, as a novel way of allowing a political decision
of the citizenry on the elected officials.
The organization that can properly be called the first Venezuelan
political party is the Liberal Party, created by Tomás Lander and
Antonio Leocadio Guzmán in 1840. Emerged as a response to the ruling
Conservative Party, both would vie for power throughout the nineteenth
century. From these derived parties would emerge, later dissolved by the
Gomecist dictatorship. In the subsequent democratic stage, some of the
most important parties on the national scene have emerged, such as the
Democratic Republican Union (URD, d. 1945), the People's Electoral
Movement (MEP, f. 1967), The R Case (f. 1971), among others.
In
the current political life of the country, those that are particularly
relevant are the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which is
the governing party; Popular Will (VP) on the initiative of Leopoldo
López in 2009; Vente Venezuela (VV), founded by María Corina Machado in
2012; Un Nuevo Tiempo (UNT) formed as a national party in 2007 and the
first party of the opposition coalition; Primero Justicia (PJ), national
since 2003; Democratic Action (AD), of social Democrat, founded in 1941
by Rómulo Gallegos and Rómulo Betancourt; the Independent Political
Electoral Organization Committee (COPEI), of a social-Christian nature,
founded in 1946 by Rafael Caldera; the Movement to Socialism (MAS), also
a social democrat, created in 1971; and the Communist Party of Venezuela
(PCV), founded in 1931 and legalized in 1945. Some important parties at
the regional level are Proyecto Carabobo (founded in 1997 with Proyecto
Venezuela), Patria Para Todos (PPT), and Por la Democracia Social
(Podemos), founded in 2003 by Ismael García.
Venezuelan foreign policy has varied according to the nature of its
government. Since in its first years as an independent nation the
country suffered a long period of internal turbulence, it could not
outline a concrete international policy, but focused on the demarcation
of boundaries. At the beginning of the twentieth century, he had
difficult relations with the European powers and with the United States
because of foreign debt, and he remained neutral during World War II
until he took sides with the Allies on February 15, 1945. In the 1950s,
Venezuela maintained close ties with dictatorships existing at the time
in Latin America, and with the United States. The restoration of the
democratic system of government in 1958 generates significant changes in
Venezuela's foreign policy, being framed within the 1961 Constitution
and concretizing in three basic guidelines: democracy, oil and active
international presence. Under the Betancourt Doctrine, it recognized
only democratic governments. In the 1980s, together with other
countries, he joined the Contadora Group, to seek peace in the armed
conflicts of Central America.
According to Article 153 of the
1999 Constitution, Latin American and Caribbean integration is favored,
favoring relations with Ibero-America. During the Bolivarian Revolution,
the Venezuelan government has approached governments of a clear leftist
and anti-imperialist line, such as Cuba, Russia and China; at the same
time, there have been setbacks and estrangements in diplomatic relations
with Colombia, Mexico and the United States. Venezuela has occupied a
seat on the UN Security Council on four occasions, in the periods from
1962 to 1963, from 1977 to 1978, from 1986 to 1987, from 1992 to 1993
and from 2015 to 2016. She ran for office in 2006 without being
elected.
Venezuela has a long history of territorial claims with
Guyana and Colombia. The country's eastern borders with Guyana, drawn by
the Paris Award of 1899 (declared null and void by Venezuela), run from
Mount Roraima to Punta Playa on the Atlantic Ocean. However, Venezuela
claims the territory called Guayana Esequiba, which would span from the
border between the two countries to the Essequibo River, which are
regions 1 (Barima-Waini), 2 (Cuyuni-Mazaruni), 7 (Pomeroon-Supenaam), 8
(Potaro-Siparuni), 10 (Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo) and the western
area of the 5 (Essequibo Islands-Western Demerara), relying on the
Geneva Agreement of 1966, signed with the United Kingdom.
He also
has a dispute with Colombia over the sovereignty of the Gulf of
Venezuela. The dispute, which dates back to the moment of dissolution of
Gran Colombia, is believed to be motivated by the presence of
hydrocarbons in the Gulf, and which in turn motivated the outbreak of
the Caldas corvette crisis in 1987. The issue was addressed again in
2007, when it was agreed to continue negotiations between the two sides.
The defense of Venezuela is in charge of the Bolivarian National
Armed Force, which, according to Article 328 of the National
Constitution, is an entity organized by the State for the service of the
Nation, and which has the duty to monitor the independence and
sovereignty of the country's geographical space, the integrity of the
territory, and to participate in its development, in addition to
remaining apolitical.
The Venezuelan military institution as a
whole has its roots in the Liberating Army commanded by Simón Bolívar
and several Republican leaders during the War of Independence, but there
can be no talk of a permanent and professional army until 1910, when
Juan Vicente Gómez put into operation the Military Academy of Venezuela,
together with the establishment of new institutions for its activity, of
National Aviation and of a new Military Code, in order to eliminate the
various regional caudillisms and preserve peace in the country.
Currently, the FANB groups together five essential components, which
are:
Bolivarian Army: institutionalized at the dawn of the twentieth
century, which is responsible for land operations and protection of
territorial borders. His day is celebrated on June 24, in commemoration
of the Battle of Carabobo.
Bolivarian Navy: existing since 1811, it
is in charge of naval defense and the preservation of sovereignty over
the aquatic spaces of Venezuela. His day is July 24, in commemoration of
the naval battle of Lake Maracaibo.
Bolivarian Military Aviation:
created in 1920 and independent since 1946, which aims to protect the
airspace of Venezuela. Its anniversary was celebrated on December 10,
but by decree of President Hugo Chávez, since 2010 it has been
celebrated on November 27, in commemoration of the second coup attempt
of 1992.
Bolivarian National Guard: founded in 1937 by Eleazar López
Contreras, formerly known as the Armed Forces of Cooperation. Its
ultimate purpose is to conduct the operations required for the
maintenance of the internal order of the country, to cooperate in the
development of the military operations required to ensure the defense of
the Nation, to exercise the administrative police and criminal
investigation activities attributed to it by the laws, as well as to
actively participate in national development, in the territory and other
geographical spaces of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. Their
anniversary is on August 4th.
Bolivarian Militia: founded in 2005, it
functions as a reserve and celebrates its day on April 13 every year.
Military service is compulsory - although without forced
conscription— for every man or woman between the ages of 18 and 60, and
must be fulfilled for a period of one year. The FANB also has its own
Military Educational System, where its Bolivarian Military University of
Venezuela (UMBV), has attached seven academies: Military Academy of the
Bolivarian Army (AMEB), Military Academy of the Bolivarian Navy (AMARB),
Military Academy of the Bolivarian Aviation (AMAB), Military Academy of
the Bolivarian National Guard (AMGNB), Military Academy of Troop
Officers C/J Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (AMOTHCH), Bolivarian Military
Technical Academy (ATMB) and Military Academy of Medicine (AMMED). This
institution graduates command officers, troops, technicians and military
surgeons.
The country's police forces are organized at the
national, state and municipal levels, being administered by their
respective governorates and mayoralties as a result of decentralization.
However, the National Executive created the Bolivarian National Police
(PNB) in 2009, an additional agency that is the main security force in
the country. The main research organization in the country is the
Scientific, Criminal and Criminalistic Research Corps (CICPC), in charge
of the investigation of crimes and crimes throughout the country. The
security forces also include the main intelligence service, the
Bolivarian National Intelligence Service (SEBIN) and the General
Directorate of Military Counterintelligence (DGCIM). This also has its
own university institution called the National Experimental University
of Security, where through several PNF, TSU graduates and graduates in
the different branches of the special forces, in addition it has
postgraduate studies.
According to The Economist's Democracy Index in 2017, the country was
listed as an "authoritarian regime," revealing how human rights have
been eroded in the country. Human rights organizations have expressed
concern about attacks on journalists, harassment of human rights
defenders and poor conditions in prisons. According to the 2017 Human
Rights Watch report, during the governments of Hugo Chávez and Nicolás
Maduro, the accumulation of power in the Executive Branch and the
erosion of human rights guarantees have allowed the government to
intimidate, persecute, torture and even criminally prosecute and
extrajudicially shoot its political opponents.
In 2019, the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) reported:
“Security agents, notably members of the SEBIN, the DGCIM and the GNB,
resorted to such measures to intimidate and punish detainees, as well as
to extract confessions and information. The most serious cases usually
took place in premises of the SEBIN, the DGCIM and the army, all over
the country (... The cases documented by OHCHR, together with the
information collected, indicate that the ill-treatment and torture
inflicted on persons deprived of liberty for having expressed certain
political opinions or for having exercised their human rights are not
isolated incidents. On the contrary, it has been documented that the
same forms of ill-treatment have been committed by agents of different
security units throughout the country, in different detention centers
and with the alleged knowledge of senior officers, which clearly
demonstrates the existence of a pattern of behavior.”
Also in
September 2020, OHCHR this time reported that the Government, state
agents and groups working with them had committed flagrant violations of
the human rights of men and women in Venezuela. It identified patterns
of violations and crimes highly coordinated in accordance with State
policies and part of a course of conduct both generalized and
systematic, thus constituting crimes against humanity.
The Venezuelan territory is divided into 23 federal states, a Capital District - which includes the city of Caracas-, and the Federal Dependencies - made up of more than 311 islands, islets and mostly uninhabited keys—. The states in turn are subdivided into Municipalities. The states are autonomous and politically equal, organizing their administration and Public Powers by means of a State Constitution, dictated by the Legislative Council in accordance with the laws of the Federation. They maintain all the power not explicitly delegated to the national and municipal government, as read in Article 164 of the Constitution.
The State Public Power is divided into four branches. The Legislative
power of the states rests on the unicameral Legislative Council, whose
deputies are elected by popular, direct and secret vote every four
years, being able to be re-elected, under a system of proportional
representation of the population of the state and its municipalities,
with a minimum of 7 and a maximum of 15. States can enact laws on
regional issues, but the main civil, commercial, criminal, labor, social
security and mining laws are the responsibility of the National
Assembly. The Executive Power of the states is exercised by a Governor
accompanied by the State Secretaries. The Governor is also elected by
direct and secret ballot for a period of four years and with the
possibility of immediate re-election, being in charge of the state
administration. The states have other institutions such as State
Comptrollers and the Attorney General's Offices. The Judiciary is
represented by the Supreme Court of the Republic, but divided into
judicial circuits in each state coordinated by the Executive Directorate
of the Regional Judiciary. The Electoral Power is in each state through
the Electoral Offices dependent on the CNE.
State fiscal control
is exercised by an organ of a Comptroller's Office in each State, which
supervises State revenues, expenditures and assets, without prejudice to
the scope of the functions of the Comptroller General's Office of the
Republic. State planning, on the other hand, is carried out by an organ
of a Planning and Coordination Council of Public Policies in each State,
chaired by the Governor and composed of the Mayors of the
Municipalities, the state directors of the ministries, and a
representation of regional deputies elected to the National Assembly, of
legislators of the State Legislative Council, of municipal councilors
and of organized communities, including indigenous ones where there are
any.
Municipal Public Power is exercised in each of the 335 municipalities
through executive, legislative, judicial, fiscal control and planning
functions, although in essence it does not differ much from the state
model. The Municipal Municipal Executive is exercised by an organ of a
Mayor elected for a period of four years by a simple majority of the
people who vote and can be re-elected. The Legislative Power delegates
its authority to Municipal Councils made up of no more than thirteen and
no less than five councilors elected for a four-year term, who may be
re-elected, who proportionally represent the population of the
Municipality. The Judicial Power is represented in the Municipal
Judicial Headquarters, and the Citizen Power exists in an autonomous
Municipal Comptroller's Office, which exercises the function of fiscal
control of the income, expenses and assets of the municipality.
Municipal planning is carried out by an organ of a Local Public Planning
Council in each municipality, responsible for designing the Municipal
Development Plan and the other plans, and being chaired by the mayor and
composed of the councilors, the presidents of the communal parish boards
and representatives of neighborhood organizations and other organized
society, in accordance with the provisions established by law.
The Powers of the Venezuelan Federation reside in the Capital District as a federal territory, the Government of the entity is headed by a Head of Government, appointed by the President of the Republic on behalf of the Federation, and depends legislatively on the Republic through the National Assembly since 2009.
With 916,445 km2, and with a coastline of 3,726 kilometers - where
about 1,700 km are sandy beaches and 311 are islands-, Venezuela is the
32nd largest country in the world — Venezuela claims the Guayana
Esequiba, administered by Guyana, with which it would total 1,075,987
km2—; it is also the ninth largest country in America, and the sixth in
South America. The territory it controls is located between latitudes 0°
and 16°N and longitudes 59° and 74°W.
With an approximate
triangle shape, the country has a coastline in the north, which includes
numerous islands in the Caribbean and the northeast borders the North
Atlantic Ocean. Most observers describe Venezuela in terms of four
fairly well-defined topographic regions: the lowlands of Maracaibo in
the northwest, the northern mountains that extend in a wide east-west
arc from the border with Colombia along the northern Caribbean coast,
the wide plains in the center of the country, and the highlands of
Guyana in the southeast.
The geographical location of Venezuela corresponds to the northern
hemisphere, and its southern limit is very close to the Earth's equator
line. Its continental territory is composed of a compact landmass that
extends equally from east to west and from north to south. Its island
territory comprises a set of archipelagos, islands and islets in the
Caribbean Sea. Its geography grants it a great diversity of natural
resources, mainly energy and minerals, as well as species and
ecosystems.
The country is located on the northern coast of South
America, and occupies most of the South American Caribbean. To the north
it has its maritime facade on the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
In the Caribbean Sea it has an extensive coastline of 2718 km in
extension, while in the Atlantic Ocean it is 556 km.
Its
continental shelf is located in the north and Northeast of the country;
it covers approximately 18% of the total continental surface and with a
maritime presence of 860,000 km2. In general, it comprises a wide
coastal belt of low relief, between 0 and 100 m a.s.l. It is located
between the Caribbean Sea and the Coastal mountain range. It has three
important widened depressions: Lake Maracaibo to the west, the Unare
Depression in the central northeast and the Orinoco Delta region to the
east, lowland and swampy. The most important ports of the country are
located in the coastal area: La Guaira, Maracaibo, Puerto Cabello and
Puerto La Cruz.
These extensive territories are expressed in a
compact continental surface, whose maximum distance is 1493 km in an
east-west direction, and 1271 km in a north-south direction, which
contributes to facilitate integration and internal cohesion. It is
articulated with wide coastlines, which reach a 2183 km long sea
frontage in the Caribbean Sea, from Castilletes to the promontory of
Paria. It is of irregular shape and is constituted by numerous gulfs and
bays among which the gulfs of Venezuela, Triste, Paria and Cariaco stand
out and more than 314 islands, cays and islets of Venezuelan sovereignty
that reach from the north to the island of Birds.
Because it is
located in the intertropical zone, Venezuela has a warm and rainy
climate in general, but due to the orography, winds, the influence of
the sea and the orientation of the mountain ranges, there are climatic
differences. Latitude exerts some importance on the seasonality and
amount of rainfall, but its role is much smaller in terms of the effect
it has on temperatures. Altitude, however, is a factor that drastically
changes the climate, especially in terms of temperature, reaching very
different values depending on the arrangement of the relief in what are
known as thermal, biotic or ecological floors.
Venezuela borders thirteen political units of the Caribbean Sea and
the Atlantic Ocean, although not all of them have defined limits of
marine and underwater areas. It has borders with delimitations resolved
with the United States of America (Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands).
USA.), the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba, Curacao and the Dutch
Caribbean), the Dominican Republic, France (Guadeloupe and Martinique)
and Trinidad and Tobago.
It remains to be delimited with Colombia
(430 km), Saint Kitts and Nevis (80 km), the United Kingdom (Montserrat)
(45 km), Dominica (80 km), Saint Lucia (10 km), Saint Vincent and the
Grenadines (90 km), Grenada (300 km) and Guyana (1150 km). It has land
borders with three countries, to the south with Brazil with 2199 km; to
the east with Guyana with 743 km that may be subject to change; and to
the west with Colombia with a length of 2219 km.
The geographical diversity of the national territory is evident by dividing it into natural regions. Specifically, up to eight regions can be differentiated in Venezuela, namely: The Andes, Maracaibo Lake Depression, Insular, Cordillera de la Costa, Cordillera Oriental, the Orinoco River Delta, Los Llanos, Guayana, and the Lara-Falcon Formation.
The Venezuelan territory covers three large geographical units that
follow each other from west to east: the northern Andean and coastal
mountain ranges to the north and west, the Venezuelan Plains that
constitute extensive sedimentary plains that are almost entirely part of
the Orinoco basin to the north of this river, and the massifs and
plateaus of very ancient formation in the Venezuelan Guiana, south of
the Orinoco River. Its configuration took place in the process of
formation of the South American subcontinent, when it formed a
supercontinent with Africa, until its separation in the Paleozoic. Very
few countries in the world, except for some very extensive ones, have
this same variety of reliefs on their territory.
In Venezuela,
the northern mountain formations bifurcate into two Andean chains,
raised during the Tertiary Era, which begin to individualize in the
north of the Colombian Eastern cordillera. The western chain is
constituted by the Sierra de Perijá, on the border with Colombia, which
rises to 3750 m. The eastern chain forms the Cordillera de Mérida, which
culminates in the Pico Bolívar at 4978 meters, the highest elevation in
the country. These two mountain ranges surround the depression of Lake
Maracaibo - 13,280 km2, the largest in South America-, which occupies a
wide depression open to the Gulf of Venezuela and has large hydrocarbon
reserves in the subsoil. Between Lake Maracaibo, the cordillera de
Mérida and the Caribbean Sea rise the sierras and hollows of the Coriano
System, formed by three orographic alignments oriented from southwest to
northwest.
To the east, the mountainous region extends, bordering
the Caribbean coast through the Cordillera Caribe, integrated by the
Cordillera de la Costa and the Serranía del Interior, both oriented
parallel in an east-west direction, and between which is the depression
of Lake Valencia. They are separated by other heavily populated
longitudinal valleys in which most of the country's economic activity is
concentrated. Los Médanos also appear, starting in the city of Coro and
extending northwards towards the Paraguaná peninsula, including the
isthmus of Los Médanos, and the Venezuelan portion of the La Guajira
peninsula. Its landscape is of a desert type, with dunes that are
continuously displaced by the action of the trade winds that blow from
east to west. Finally, to the east of this mountain range rises the
Cumaná Massif, which forms the Araya and Paria peninsulas, between the
Cariaco and Paria gulfs. Thus we have that the west and the Venezuelan
coastal north are dominated by successive mountain ranges, which
although they are segregated by fertile valleys and hollows, do not lose
their structural continuity.
The Orinoco Plains occupy the
central depression that extends between the Andean mountains and the
Orinoco Valley, which borders the north of the Guayanese Massif. It
constitutes an immense plain that is characterized by its horizontality,
covered by the sea in the past - origin of hydrocarbon deposits — and
currently covered by powerful layers of fluvial sediments drained by the
Orinoco, which in the south links with the Amazon and extends to the
Atlantic in the east, through a large river delta of more than 40,000
km2. They are different from others of alluvial formation, by their
geological constitution and by their general appearance, distinguishing
in them the so-called High or Western Plains, well drained and covered
with vegetation; the Low or Central Plains, floodable in the rainy
season, and the Eastern Plains or The Mesas, characterized by the
tabular relief in the form of plateaus, which descends in the east from
the Cumaná Massif to the Orinoco, isolating in the eastern end the
plains of the Monagas state.
Finally, to the southeast of the
Orinoco rises the Guiana Shield, whose relief of elevated blocks has
been subject to fluvial erosions, until it becomes a penillanura to the
north and southwest. To the southeast, on the other hand, erosion has
excavated deep valleys, creating a secondary relief of small mountain
ranges and isolated highlands called tepuis. The formation ascends
gradually until it forms long mountain ranges on the border with Brazil
(Sierras de Tapirapecó, Parima and Pacaraima). The Roraima Formation, in
the southeast of the country, is precisely responsible for the presence
of the tepuis, among which the Auyantepuy Plateau stands out. From the
western slopes of the Auyantepuy falls the famous Angel Falls, the
highest waterfall in the world, with a free fall over the Churun River
valley. However, the most outstanding summit of Venezuelan Guiana is the
Tepuy Roraima.
The Guiana Shield area is the oldest dating, and
together with the Brazilian Shield they make up one of the oldest
formations and continental blocks on the planet, with more than 3500
million years. Its extension in Venezuela is about 430,000 km2, and this
is equivalent to almost half of the national territory. It is found at
depth below the sedimentary layer that constitutes the Venezuelan
plains, extending towards Guyana, Brazil, Suriname and French Guiana. At
its base are the oldest rocks on the planet, both igneous — such as
granite— and metamorphic — shale, quartzite and gneiss. To the
northeast, on the other hand, there is a relief of hills, mountain
ranges and highlands, where the Sierra de Imataca and the Nuria plateau
stand out. Here the soil is made up of ferruginous quartzites or
itabyrites — rocks with a high iron content—, which explains the
existence of abundant reserves of this mineral in the area.
The country is made up of three hydrographic slopes: that of the
Caribbean Sea, that of the Atlantic Ocean and that of Lake Valencia,
which forms an endorheic basin.
On the Atlantic slope drains most
of the river waters of Venezuela. The largest basin in this area is the
extensive Orinoco basin whose surface area, close to one million km2, is
greater than that of all of Venezuela, although it has a presence of 65%
in the country. The size of this basin — similar to that of the Danube —
makes it the third in South America, and it gives rise to a flow of
about 33 thousand m3/s, making the Orinoco the third largest in the
world, and also one of the most valuable from the point of view of
renewable natural resources. The Casiquiare River or Arm constitutes a
unique case in the world, since it is a natural derivation of the
Orinoco that, after about 500 km in length, connects it with the Negro
River, which is in turn a tributary of the Amazon. The Orinoco receives
directly or indirectly rivers such as the Ventuari, the Caura, the
Caroní, the Meta, the Arauca, the Apure and many others. Other
Venezuelan waterways that empty into the Atlantic are the waters of the
San Juan and Cuyuni basins. Finally, there is the one of the Amazon
River, which receives the Guainía, the Negro and others. Other basins
are the Gulf of Paria and the Essequibo River.
The second most
important slope is the Caribbean Sea. The rivers of this region are
usually of short course and of scarce and irregular flow, with some
exception as is the case of the Catatumbo, which is born in Colombia and
drains into the basin of Lake Maracaibo. Among the rivers that reach the
basin of Lake Maracaibo are the Chama, the Escalante, the Catatumbo, and
the contributions of minor basins of the Tocuyo, Yaracuy, Neverí and
Manzanares rivers.
A minimum of drains into the Lake Valencia
basin. Of the total extension of the rivers, a total of 5400 km are
navigable. Other rivers worth mentioning are the Apure, the Arauca, the
Caura, the Meta, the Barima, the Portuguesa, the Ventuari and the Zulia,
among others.
The main lakes of the country are Lake Maracaibo —
the largest in South America - open to the sea through the natural
channel, but with fresh water, and Lake Valencia with its endorheic
system. Other water bodies that can be mentioned are the Guri reservoir,
the Altagracia lagoon, the Camatagua reservoir and the Mucubají lagoon,
in the Andes. Navigation on Lake Maracaibo through the natural channel
is useful for the mobilization of oil resources.
Because it is located in the intertropical zone, Venezuela has a warm
and rainy climate with two seasons: a dry season, which runs from
October to March, and a rainy season, from April to September. Due to
the orography, the winds and the sea, there are climatic differences.
Latitude is of little importance, but altitude drastically changes the
climate, especially the temperature, reaching very different values.
According to the Köppen classification, the types of climate
are:156
Tropical or warm rainy (A), the most predominant and
characteristic of the country. It maintains temperatures above 18 °C and
rainfall for much of the year. The tropical savanna climate (Aw) occurs
in the llanos, north of Guyana, and in parts of the Andes and the
cordillera de la Costa, such as San Cristóbal and Caracas. It is dry
between December and March, with rainfall between 600 and 1500 mm per
year. In Guyana, the Aroa and Barlovento Rivers have their own monsoon
climate (Am), with rainfall between 1600 and 2500 mm per year and a
drought of just 45 days. To the south of the same region and in the
Sierra de Perijá, the tropical rainforest climate is typical (Af), the
rainfall exceeds 2500 mm, having no dry season.
Dry (B), where
evaporation exceeds precipitation. It is typical of desert and arid
areas of the coast, with temperatures well above 18 ° C. In Falcón,
especially in the Dunes of Coro, and the Insular Region there is the
warm desert mode (BWh) with moderate rains and scarce vegetation. To the
west of that state, the central coast, the cordillera de la Costa,
Paraguaná, Barquisimeto, Maracaibo and part of Margarita Island have the
warm or semi-arid steppe (BSh).
Temperate intertropical high altitude
or dry winter (Cw), with temperatures between 14 and 18 °C in the
highest elevations of the cordillera de la Costa such as Colonia Tovar,
and at medium heights of the Andes, such as Mérida, Tovar and Mucuchíes.
High mountain cold (E), with temperatures between less than 0 and 10 °
C. The tundra climate (ET) is appreciated in the páramos above 2800 m
a.s.l., in Sidings and the El Águila Peak. The icy high mountain climate
(EF) is reserved for the highest peaks of the Venezuelan Andes, such as
the Bonpland, La Concha, Humboldt and Bolívar peaks.
Venezuela has a diversity of species in its natural habitat. Its main
centers of endemism are the Andes and Coastal mountain ranges, the
Sierra de Perijá and the Guayana massif within the Orinoco River basin.
It has more than 30,000 species of angiosperms — positioning the
country in the eighth place in the world —, of which more than 8,000 are
endemic (40% of the total). It also ranks fifth in the world in bird
species, with approximately 1420 species (15% of the world total and 45%
of South American bird species) with 49 of them being endemic. There
are 390 species of mammals, and 400 species of amphibians, occupying the
ninth place in the world in this group. It is estimated that 12% of the
1300 species of freshwater freshwater fish are endemic. Among tropical
countries, it ranks fourth in plant species, fifth in mammals and birds,
sixth in primates, amphibians and reptiles, and ninth in butterflies.
The vertebrate fauna in Venezuela includes an approximate of 2120
terrestrial species and 1000 aquatic species. Venezuelan mammals include
306 terrestrial and 21 aquatic species, of which 14 are endemic. The
avifauna are represented in 1300 species; 46 of them are endemic and 120
are migratory. There are 254 species of reptiles distributed in 3
orders, 22 families and 105 genera in the country, while inland fish
have about 1000 species. Due to this wide diversity of natural species,
the country is part of the group of megadiverse countries, which brings
together 18 countries for having the highest concentration and diversity
of species in the world.
The flora of the rainforests of
Venezuelan Guayana, on the other hand, consist of trees up to 40 meters
high, such as ceiba, yagrumo, guamo, mahogany, bejucos, bromeliad
species and other epiphytes. The fauna of these regions is represented
by jaguars, pumas, chigüires, anteaters, báquirs, otters and cachicamos.
Its avifauna is made up of toucans, parrots and macaws. There are also
rattlesnakes and cuaima-piña, as well as iguanas, morrocoyas and
toninas.
In the cloud forests of the Andes and the Coast mountain
ranges and in several mountain ranges, the presence of sweet cedar,
jarillo or apamate stands out, in addition to various species of palms
and orchids such as the Cattleya mossiae, national flower. Among the
fauna inhabiting such regions, the tapir or tapir, the limpet, the
kinkaju, the puma and others are recorded. Birds such as the guacharaca
and hummingbirds are observed, many snakes such as the famous anaconda,
the mapanare and the coral one, and many species of frogs and arachnids.
The Andean regions of Trujillo, Mérida and Tachira, where the
temperature is very low, count among their plant species the cardon, the
cují, the bucare and the frailejón. Precisely because of the low
temperature, the fauna is usually scarce, observing however the presence
of rabbits, deer, foxes, porcupines and shrews, also having the Andean
condor, the black eagle, the golden eagle and the paraulata.
The
pardillo, the granadilla, the mahogany and the vera are typical of the
arboreal vegetation of the Barinés and Apureño piedmont, although the
rest of the vegetation of the Plains is of lower altitude and is
constituted by pastures and moriche palms associated to the water
bodies. There are also the chaparros and there are gallery forests. In
this region there is the araguaney, the emblem tree of the nation. As
fauna, deer, anteaters and others are counted. The most representative
birds are sparrowhawks, ducks and herons. There is a proliferation of
crocodiles, babas, the Orinoco caiman and several species of snakes,
finding cachamas, catfish and guabinas in the water bodies.
In
the desert areas of the coast to the north of the country the primary
vegetation is composed of cacti such as cardones, cujíes and tunas. The
animals that make up its fauna are rabbits, goats, rabipelados and
snakes, as well as cardinals, turpiales, and sparrowhawks.
On the
other hand, white, black and red mangrove species can be seen in the
Orinoco Delta, Margarita Island, Barlovento and in the coastal areas of
Zulia, Falcón and the east of the country.
Other species of
mammals that can be found in the aquatic spaces of the country are the
dolphin, the manatee and the whales. Lizards such as the chameleon, the
tuqueque, the iguana, the matado, are some of the best known species of
reptiles in Venezuela.
Among the endangered species of Venezuela
are mentioned the arrau turtle, the jaguar, the frontino bear, the
condor, the manatee, anteater or palm tree, and the cardinalito. The
tapir, the caiman of the coast, the caiman of the Orinoco, the water
dog, the green turtle, the hawksbill turtle, the Cardón turtle, the
parrot turtle and the yellow-headed parakeet are also in a critical
situation.
Phytogeographically, Venezuela has a great variety of biomes such as
savannas, jungles, forests, paramos, deserts, mangroves, tepuis, among
others. With a community of plants and animals of various types due in
large part to the climatic differences that occur in its territory. The
country has very different areas both for its climate and the presence
of the characteristic fauna of the areas. These biomes are usually
easily classified by their appearance or feature because vegetation
contributes to their observation and classification.
These
characteristics make the country recognized as a megadiverse country,
occupying the seventh place among the countries with the greatest
biodiversity in the world. The country occupies the fifth position in
the world in the number of bird species, the seventh position in the
world in vascular plant species, the ninth position in the world in
amphibians, the fourth position with the most freshwater fish species,
and also ranks among the countries with the most butterfly species.
Venezuela currently has two biosphere reserves, among which are the Alto
Orinoco-Casiquiare bioreserve - which occupies a large part of the
surface of the Duida-Marahuaca National Park — and that of the Orinoco
Delta.
In 2020, the country was the 76th.° the world's largest exporter (US$
16.4 million in goods, 0.1% of the world total). In 2016, the country
was the 63rd largest importer in the world - US$33.6 billion. Venezuela
has a market economy whose main basis is the extraction and refining of
oil for export and domestic consumption. It is the eighth economy in
Latin America, after Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador
and Guatemala according to its GDP (nominal) and the seventh also, by
its GDP (PPP).
The country's main exports go to China ($843 M),
Turkey ($452 M), the United States ($308 M), the Netherlands ($171 M),
and Brazil ($168 M), while its main imports come from China ($2.19 MM),
the United States ($1.55 MM), Brazil ($1.09 B), Colombia ($331 M), and
India ($312 M).
Throughout the twentieth century it positioned
itself as the most prosperous economy in the region precisely due to the
oil boom that began in the middle of the era, while its currency was one
of the most appreciating against the dollar, but the fall in the price
of this resource in the 1980s caused a strong recession and financial
problems. The economy showed a significant recovery in 2004, registering
a growth of 17%, one of the highest in the world according to the
International Monetary Fund. At the end of 2008, this was 4% of the
gross domestic product. The country risk stood at 961 basis points in
September 2012, according to official data. The unemployment rate for
2011 was 8.2%. However, its inflation rate for the same year was 30.9%,
the highest in Latin America. At the beginning of 2014, the economy
fell back into recession with 3 consecutive semesters of negative data
and with a retreat at the end of 2014 of 3.9%. In 2015, inflation
closed at 180.9% and GDP fell 5.7% compared to the previous year. In
2016, according to preliminary results of the Central Bank of Venezuela
reported by Reuters, GDP fell 18.6% and inflation reached 799.9%, the
highest in the world. Venezuela also has some subsidiary companies of
Petróleos de Venezuela such as Citgo.
Venezuela produced in 2019: 4.3 million tons of sugar cane; 1.9
million tons of corn; 1.4 million tons of banana; 760 thousand tons of
rice; 485 thousand tons of pineapple; 477 thousand tons of potato; 435
thousand tons of palm oil; 421 thousand tons of cassava; 382 thousand
tons of orange; 225 thousand tons of watermelon; 199 thousand tons of
papaya; 194 thousand tons of melon; 182 thousand tons of tomatoes; 155
thousand tons of tangerine; 153 thousand tons of coconut; 135 thousand
tons of avocado; 102 thousand tons of mango — including mangosteen and
guava—; 56 thousand tons of coffee; in addition to small productions of
other agricultural products. Due to internal economic and political
problems, sugarcane production fell from 7.3 million tons in 2012 to 3.6
million in 2016. Maize production fell from 2.3 million tonnes in 2014
to 1.2 million tonnes in 2017. Rice fell from 1.15 million tons in 2014
to 498 thousand tons in 2016.
In livestock, Venezuela produced,
in 2019: 470 thousand tons of beef, 454 thousand tons of chicken meat,
129 thousand tons of pork, 1.7 billion liters of cow's milk, among
others. The production of chicken meat decreased progressively, from
year to year, from 1.1 million tons in 2011 to 448 thousand tons in
2017. Pork production fell from 219 thousand tons in 2011 to 124
thousand tons in 2018. Cow's milk production fell from 2400 million
liters in 2011 to 1700 million liters in 2019.
The Land and
Agrarian Development Law of 1960 made it possible to expand and
diversify agricultural production, which was also stimulated by the
increase in irrigable area, the irruption of new companies and the
introduction of new plant species. These facts have helped agriculture
to have benefited, increasing the spaces destined to cultivation in the
Llanera, Andean and Zuliana regions. There are about 310,972 hectares of
irrigable land in the country, with a net area of 197,258 hectares.
In 2003, agricultural activities occupied 11% of the country's
active population — 4% less than in 1990 — and contributed 5% of the
annual GDP. Venezuelan agrarian resources range from subsistence and
semi-commercial agriculture, developed in traditional conucos and small
farms where products for domestic consumption are grown, to plantations
of various types. In recent decades, mechanized and Moderna annual crop
systems have multiplied, such as those specialized in corn, rice,
sorghum, sesame, peanuts, sunflower and cotton.
The leading crops
in terms of production and trade are sugar cane, corn, rice, cambur,
potato, and cassava. The traditional tropical crops are coffee, sugar
cane, cocoa and tobacco. An important cereal harvest of maize, rice and
sorghum has taken hold in the Central-western plains region. Maize
cultivation accounted for 58.13% of cereal production in 2005, reaching
two million tons, while rice cultivation exceeded 900 000 tons. In the
production of oilseeds, oil palm is of great importance — 44.41% of the
total for that year—, coconuts, cotton, sisal, soy, sunflower and
sesame. The legumes group has experienced an uptick in recent years, and
its production includes caraotas -62.97%- and beans. On the other hand,
the production of roots and tubers began to experience an upturn in
1998, being led by potatoes — 50.83% of the area - and cassava, which
has been stagnant. In the group of fruits, the banana or cambur, the
banana, oranges, pineapples and melons stand out.
Livestock
farming is concentrated in the Llanera region, the Zulia, Guayana, the
Andes, the Lower Motatán and the northwest. Advances can be seen in the
mobilization of livestock resources with improvements in the yields of
various types of livestock farming. In 2005, the cattle herd in
Venezuela had 16,300,000 cattle, 3,100,000 pigs, 530,000 sheep and
110,000,000 poultry. More activity is noticeable in Los Llanos, a
prosperous area of intensive meat and milk production has been
established there. The main breeds of cattle are Brahman, Santa
Gertrudis and Carora, while those of pigs are Yorkshire and Landrace,
among others. Recently, Venezuela has imported cattle from Argentina
and Uruguay.
Venezuela's fishing resources are made up of a
variety of marine species. The most important commercial catches are
tuna, sardines, carites, dogfish, smooth, shrimp, shrimp, trout,
snapper, groupers, crabs and others. Shrimp and mussel mariculture has
been introduced on the coast, trout farming in fish farms in Mérida and
Táchira, and fluvial aquaculture in Los Llanos, Zulia and Guayana. In
2007, the fishing production stood at 311,125 tons, highlighting the
productions of Sucre, Nueva Esparta and Falcón.
On the other
hand, the timber industry has not had the same magnitude, despite the
fact that Venezuela is covered with extensive forests and jungles. This
is due to the inaccessibility of the areas. Despite this, massive
plantations of Caribbean pine have been carried out for commercial
purposes, south of Monagas and Anzoátegui, next to the banks of the
Orinoco. According to statistics, 5 082 092 m3 of wood were obtained in
2005.
In non-renewable energies, in 2020, the country was the 26th world
oil producer, extracting 527 thousand barrels/ day. Venezuela
registered a sharp drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5
million barrels/day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2
million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack
of investments. and for the politics of the country. In 2019, the
country consumed 356 thousand barrels/day (39th largest consumer in the
world). The country was the thirteenth largest oil exporter in the
world in 2018 (1.2 million barrels/day), when production had not yet
plummeted to 527 thousand barrels/day in 2020. In 2015, Venezuela was
the 28th largest producer of natural gas, 26 billion m3 per year. In
2017, the country was the 28th largest gas consumer (37.6 billion m3 per
year) and was the 45th largest gas importer in the world in 2010 - 2.1
billion m3 per year. In coal production, the country was the 41st
largest in the world in 2018 - 0.3 million tons (in 2014, production was
1.2 million tons and has been falling ever since). In renewable
energies, in 2020, Venezuela did not produce wind energy or solar
energy. In 2014 it was the ninth largest producer of hydropower in the
world with an installed capacity of 15 GW.
In Venezuela, oil, the
main source of income, generates about 80% by export. The country is a
founding member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and
one of the leading producing countries on the planet. The deposits of
this resource in all its types are abundant in a large part of the
territory, having the first world reserve, in 2019 oil production in
Venezuela was at 750,000 b/d and in 2020 its monthly average was 450,000
b/d, most of it being exported to the United States, Europe and Latin
American countries until before 2014, currently its main consumer is
China and on a smaller scale this is Cuba and Iran. By 2019 oil
production decreased too much and by 2021 Venezuela became an importer
of gasoline and diesel.
The extraction is carried out mainly in
the Maracaibo Lake basin and in the Barinas-Apure and Oriental basins.
The leading company in oil processing is PDVSA, which has subsidiaries
operating in six refineries of various sizes in the country, as well as
others in Curacao, the United States, Germany, Sweden and Belgium. The
country is also one of the world's leading producers of natural gas: in
2005, 27,530 million m3 of production were estimated, along with
liquefied gas, butane and propane. Venezuela also has the Orinoco Belt,
which is considered the largest accumulation of heavy and extra-heavy
crude oil that exists in the world. The original oil reserves at the La
Faja site, according to PDVSA, reach 1.36 billion barrels so far.
Other mineral resources are also exploited for commercial purposes
such as iron, bauxite, coal, gold, salt, phosphates and limestones. The
iron deposits in the Sierra de Imataca, discovered in the 1940s, were
extracted by American companies until the nationalization of 1975 passed
this function to the state-owned Ferrominera del Orinoco, a subsidiary
of the Venezuelan Corporation of Guayana. The main Guayanese deposits
are Cerro Bolívar, Cerro San Isidro and Cerro Los Barrancos, most of
which are exported to Europe, Asia and the United States.
Bauxite
has been extracted from the Pijiguaos since 1987, and these are destined
for aluminum producing companies. The Guasare coal deposits in Zulia,
Carbosuroeste in Táchira, and Fila Maestra and Naricual in Anzoátegui
State have also been exploited. There is an abundance of gold in Bolivar
and Amazonas, and its reserves represent 10% of the world total. It is
also a major producer of diamonds, limestone and dolomite. Other farms
of great interest are the Tachira phosphate, manganese deposits in
Guyana and nickel deposits in Aragua and Miranda. There are minor
magnesite reserves on Margarita Island.
The main institution in
the administration and extraction of the country's mining resources is
the Venezuelan Mining Corporation (d. 2013), incorporated as a
subsidiary of Petróleos de Venezuela, and whose objectives include
delimiting the activity of small-scale mining and preventing the
smuggling of resources abroad.
The World Bank lists the main producing countries every year,
according to the total value of production. According to the 2019 list,
Venezuela had the 31st most valuable industry in the world (US$58.2
billion). Broadly speaking, based on the oil industry. In 2018,
Venezuela was the 51st global producer of vehicles in the world (1.7
thousand), suffering falls since 2010, when it produced 153 thousand
vehicles/year. In steel production, the country is not among the 40
largest producers in the world.
Venezuela was very industrialized
until before 2013, since 51.6% (2003) of its gross domestic product
(GDP) comes from industry. Special priority has been given to the
manufacturing industry since the middle of the twentieth century. The
main products of Venezuelan industries are petroleum derivatives, steel,
aluminum, fertilizers, cement, tires and motorized vehicles. It is also
responsible for the processing of food, beverages, textiles, clothing,
footwear, plastic items and wood. The INE data for 2004 placed the
active population in industry at 322 907 people. The industrial zones
are concentrated in the cities of the Capital and Central region. At the
end of the twentieth century, the location of industries in other
regions such as the Western Center, the Zuliana and the Guayana was
consolidated. In 2007, 4.3 billion tons of steel were produced per year,
that year the loss of steel production began, by 2018 it was barely 50
thousand tons per year. The aluminum industry was wiped out in 2019
with the energy crisis when they turned off their last electrolytic
cells. the fertilizer, plastic footwear and clothing industries have
been diminished by the economic crisis that the country is going
through.
Tourism in Venezuela is an underdeveloped industry, despite the fact
that the country is favored by the wide range of natural environments in
its territory. All the natural regions of Venezuela have a lot of
tourist attractions and the low cost of transportation, given the low
price of gasoline in Venezuela, favors the mobility of tourists.
The country receives fewer foreign visitors than most countries of the
same size and even than nearby regions such as Aruba. For 2008,
Venezuela had some 301,579 visitors from Europe, followed by South
America (227,105), North America (130,257), the Caribbean (39,480), Asia
(15,912), Central America (11,377) and the Middle East (10,100). The
industry experienced a significant decline due to political instability
during the Bolivarian Revolution. According to data from the Ministry of
People's Power for Tourism (MPPT), 435,421 tourists were received in
2003, 47% less than in 1998. However, this rate showed an uptick in
2008, with 856,810 foreign tourists visiting the country.
With
regard to domestic tourism, the MPPT data express that Venezuelans
prefer to move to various destinations in the national geography during
the Easter holiday and the Carnival festivities - 13.1 and 12.6 million
tourists respectively for 2007 - as well as during the holidays on the
occasion of Christmas and New Year. The main reason for trips in the
interior of the country throughout the year, according to statistics, is
to visit family or friends, followed by the desire for recreation
typical of the holiday seasons, and professional and business reasons as
the third motive.
Given the development of its tourist industry,
the Island of Margarita is the destination par excellence for
recreation, being valued for its beaches, its climate and its culture.
Also noteworthy are the Los Roques Archipelago and the Morrocoy National
Park. The Dunes of Coro and the Guácharo Cave also arouse interest
because of their peculiarity.
The Andean region, also attractive
for its temperate climate and landscapes, has the Bolivar Peak and the
Mérida Cable Car, as well as the Sierra Nevada. Urban destinations are
profitable especially in the historic center of each city, with Caracas
being the most visited city — about 231 thousand international tourists
in 2008.
Venezuela is an especially interesting country for the
development of ecotourism or adventure tourism, and its main
destinations are the Canaima National park, the Los Llanos Region (which
has areas of exuberant biodiversity), the Amazonas state, and the
uninhabited La Tortuga Island, among others. These ecotourism
destinations are recommended for visitors in search of risk, adventure
and experiences different from conventional tourism. The Amazon
Rainforest has indigenous tribes of great interest while inside the
Canaima National Park, in the south of Venezuela, in the Bolivar State,
there are views that are not achieved anywhere else in the world. This
park has two very different sectors. To the east, the eastern sector,
where the Gran Sabana is located and to the west, the western sector,
where the Angel Falls and the Canaima Lagoon are located. The Canaima
National Park extends over 30,000 km2 to the border with Guyana and
Brazil, due to its size it is considered the sixth largest national park
in the world. About 65% of the park is occupied by rock plateaus called
tepuis. These constitute a unique biological environment, also
presenting a great geological interest. Its steep cliffs and its
waterfalls (including the Angel Falls, which is the highest waterfall in
the world, at 1002 m) form spectacular landscapes.
In non-renewable energies, in 2020, the country was the 26th world
oil producer, extracting 527 thousand barrels/ day.203 Venezuela
registered a sharp drop in production after 2015 (where it produced 2.5
million barrels/day), falling in 2016 to 2.2 million, in 2017 to 2
million, in 2018 to 1.4 million and in 2019 to 877 thousand, due to lack
of investments. and for the politics of the country. In 2019, the
country consumed 356 thousand barrels/day (39th largest consumer in the
world). The country was the thirteenth largest oil exporter in the
world in 2018 (1.2 million barrels/day), when production had not yet
plummeted to 527 thousand barrels/day in 2020. In 2015, Venezuela was
the 28th largest producer of natural gas, 26 billion m3 per year. In
2017, the country was the 28th largest gas consumer (37.6 billion m3 per
year) and was the 45th largest gas importer in the world in 2010 - 2.1
billion m3 per year.
In coal production, the country was the 41st
largest in the world in 2018 - 0.3 million tons (in 2014, production was
1.2 million tons and has been falling ever since). In renewable
energies, in 2020, Venezuela did not produce wind energy or solar
energy. In 2014 it was the ninth largest producer of hydropower in the
world with an installed capacity of 15 GW.
About 68.13% of
electricity is produced in hydroelectric facilities. The state-owned
company Corporación Venezolana de Guayana/Electrification of the Caroní
(CVG EDELCA) developed the Raúl Leoni hydroelectric power plant and the
Macagua power plant in Bolívar. They have contributed more than 70% of
Venezuelan electricity production in recent years. The state-owned
Public Limited Company of Electric Administration and Development
(CADAFE, f. 1958) has been carrying out the construction of the Uribante
Caparo Complex since the 70s, having only built the San Agatón power
plant or first development to date. According to data, 99.2 million kWh
of electricity were generated in 2005.
According to INE data for
that year, Venezuelan electricity production was able to supply a
consumption equivalent to 757,000 barrels of oil per day, which has made
it possible to comply with the policy of replacing thermoelectricity
with hydroelectricity followed by Venezuela, which will save liquid
fuels that can be used for export or conservation. The energy generated
by the Simón Bolívar power plant supplies most of the national
territory, including part of Caracas. Of the total produced, a part is
acquired by Brazil to supply a portion of the North of its territory.
The minimum wage is established directly by the national government
with its publication in the Official Gazette. From December 2015 to
January 2020 the minimum wage has been deteriorating due to the high
inflation in Venezuela, by November 2017 the minimum wage fell on
average to less than 25 dollars per month, during that period the
government has raised the salary between four and six times a year to
level its devaluation. by March 1, 2018, the minimum wage was 392 646.46
Bs.F that together with the food voucher (915 000 Bs.F), totals 1 307
546.46 Bs.F, equivalent to 6.12 USD at the black market exchange rate or
32.54 USD according to the official DICOM exchange rate of the Central
Bank of Venezuela (BCV).
In August 2018, the Venezuelan monetary
cone lost five zeros in its accounting, with a new currency the
Sovereign bolivar (Bs.S), the new minimum wage was adjusted to 1800
sovereign bolivars. Retirees lost part of their acquired benefits due to
high inflation. For that month the minimum wage represented 18 dollars
and the government disappeared the official dollar system controlled by
a Controlled Floating exchange system. In January 2020, the minimum
wage rose to 250 thousand sovereign bolivars, equivalent to about 3.5
dollars or about 10,500 Colombian pesos per month. Food vouchers are
not included in the accounting at the time of termination of employment
or retirement request.
Historically, the official exchange rate
assigned by the Central Bank by which the equivalent of bolivars in
dollars is calculated, had a fixed value since February 5, 2003 (1 USD =
1 600 Bs.) which lasted until February 2005, was again regulated from
March 2005 until January 2010 (1 USD = 2.15 Bs.F or 2150 Bs.) product of
an exchange control regulated by CADIVI. On January 11, 2010, the
national exchange rate system was devalued again, placing the dollar at
2.60 Bs.F and creating the oil dollar at 4.30 Bs.F, said dual scheme was
eliminated as of January 1, 2011 devaluing both rates to a value of 4.30
Bs.F per dollar.
From June 2010 to mid-2012 there was a third
exchange rate called SITME regulated by the BCV in order to contain the
parallel exchange rate in which the price of the dollar oscillates
around twice the official rate, this scheme did not have a fixed value
for the dollar and worked through the purchase and sale of securities in
foreign currency. This fixed-value system was eliminated on January 30,
2018 Venezuela has the highest inflation in the world: it closed at
799.9% in 2016, considered hyperinflation since November 2017; the
accumulated inflation in 2018 reached 1 698 488% by December 2019
according to the National Assembly estimated an accumulated inflation of
7 374%.
International reserves are deposits of foreign currency controlled by
central banks and other monetary authorities. Those of Venezuela were in
March 2009 a total of 29 633 million dollars, rising to 30 434 billion
in July,< while for the end of July 2012 they stood at 27 210 million
dollars. As of December 2016, the reserves have fallen to 10,868
million dollars. In October 2019, the reserves fell by $7,978 million.
on January 2, 2020, according to the BCV report, reserves stood at
$6,633 million, the lowest figure in the last 25 years.
In the
official gold reserves, Venezuela has been losing its gold reserves
continuously for the last eight years, by 1957 after the second world
war it managed to accumulate 640 Mt of gold being the most thriving
economy for the time, in 2010 it occupied the first place in Latin
America and the 15th.º in the world, with 372.9 tons, equivalent to
67.7% of its international reserves. Until the end of 2016, gold
reserves decreased to 187.5 tons, ranking 25th in the world. by June
2019 the gold reserves dropped to 102.4 Mt occupying the 36th place in
the world.
Along with the economic crisis of 1983 that led to industrial
reconversion and the establishment of exchange control, making the oil
sector the most important part of the economy, the global economic
crisis that began in 2008 and taking into account the Venezuelan oil
boom 2008-2011, external indebtedness, uncontrolled public spending,
mismanagement and the fall in oil production after 2014 had especially
serious consequences in Venezuela.
Initially, there were
shortages of basic products, unemployment, a subsequent stagnation and a
new fall starting from the last quarter of 2014. The difficult situation
of the economy led to a drop in tax revenues, a drop in oil production,
an increase in certain financial expenses, the maturity of debts and the
commitment to deliver oil to China, which led the government of Nicolás
Maduro to drastically devalue the currency. This was accompanied by a
social, institutional and political crisis, numerous demonstrations, an
increase in poverty and inequality in the country.
The country
has been in default since November 2018. The conflicts acquired in 2008
due to the expropriation of some foreign companies that the state lost
to the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes
(ICSID) and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC). They have
brought serious consequences for its economy between 2016 and 2019 being
in a hyper-inflationary process. The crisis has triggered a de facto
dollarization. According to Luis Zambrano Sequín, from the Institute of
Economic and Social Research, 40% of its deposits are in the US
currency, turning the country into a dollarized economy as of September
2018. In addition, approximately 60% of payments in commercial
businesses in 2021 were made in dollars.
Venezuela has had several scientists who have contributed
significantly to the natural and medical sciences, as well as to
technological advancement. The first vaccine for the cure of leprosy and
against leishmaniasis was developed by Jacinto Convit, while Baruch
Benacerraf made demonstrations on immune responses to antigens and their
variation in each person, which made him worthy of the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine in 1980. In the field of technology, Humberto
Fernández Morán contributed to the development of the electron
microscope and the diamond scalpel, the latter of his own inventiveness,
being the first to introduce the concept of cryoultramicrotomy.
Historically, the first vestige of technology made by Venezuelans is
found in the development of the Corner clamp, which allowed parts to be
recovered in oil wells. Technological activities in the country would
gain a new impetus towards the middle of the twentieth century with the
creation of new institutes aimed at the promotion and
professionalization of scientific and technological activity in the
country.
Such schools, such as the National Council of Scientific
and Technological Research (CONICT) and the Venezuelan Institute of
Scientific Research, are the main references in these subjects. All are
attached to the Ministry of Science and Technology. On the other hand
there is the National Astronomical Observatory of Llano del Hato which,
at 3600 m above sea level, is one of the highest in the world. In 2012,
the Miranda Satellite (VRSS-1) was launched, intended for terrestrial
observation and taking high-resolution digital photographs of the
national territory.
Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America; the
vast majority of Venezuelans live in the northern cities, especially in
the capital Caracas, which is itself the most populous city. About 93%
of the population lives in urban areas in the north of the country; 73%
lives less than 100 kilometers from the coast. Although almost half of
Venezuela's land area is located south of the Orinoco, only 5% of
Venezuelans live there. The largest and most important city south of the
Orinoco is Ciudad Guayana, which is the sixth most populous urban
agglomeration.
The population of Venezuela in 2011 exceeded 28
million inhabitants, and it was estimated that it would rise to 42
million by 2050. However, the social, economic and political crisis
that the country has experienced during the 2010s has contributed to a
massive exodus of the country's population has resulted in a significant
reduction in the Venezuelan population that by 2020 has contracted again
to 28.5 million citizens.
Despite having a high birth rate,
Venezuela at the same time has the highest emigration rate in the entire
region. In 2009, it was estimated that more than 1 million Venezuelans
had emigrated since Hugo Chávez came to power. Large-scale emigration
still continues and increased during the presidency of Nicolás Maduro,
it is estimated that since 1999 some 6.5 million Venezuelans have left
the country.
The Venezuelan population tends to concentrate mostly in coastal and mountainous areas, either because of the easier access to ports, in the case of the coast; or because of the more temperate climate, in the case of mountainous areas. The most important population center outside the coastal/mountain area is Ciudad Guayana, at the confluence of the Orinoco and Caroní rivers, in the east of the country. The main cities of Venezuela are listed below in terms of importance, size and number of inhabitants. The population data belong to the latest Population and Housing Census of the National Statistics Institute for 2011.
Venezuelans have a rich combination of heritages that includes three
ethnic families, these being the European, the Amerindian and the
African, whose integration began with the establishment of the Colony.
At the beginning of the twentieth century, after the discovery of oil
and the periods of wars in Europe, Venezuela received an important mass
immigration of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy and Portugal, in which
the process of miscegenation remained important, and today the majority
of the population has mixed ancestry or origins. As an important fact,
it should be noted that, since the colony and until the end of the
Second World War, the flow of immigrants from the Canary Islands has
been very important, its cultural impact being very significant, in the
development of Spanish in the country, its gastronomy and customs.
According to a genetic study of autosomal DNA carried out in 2008 by the
University of Brasilia the composition of the population of Venezuela
is: 60.60% of the European contribution, 23% of the Amerindian
contribution and 16.30% of the African contribution.
According to
the XIV National Population and Housing Census, when people were
questioned about their ethnic-racial origin, with the options: "Black",
"Afro-descendant", "Moreno" [sic], "Blanco", Other; 49.9% of the
population said they were 'morena' (that is, brown-skinned), while 42.2%
identified as 'blanca'. 2.8% said they were 'black', and 0.7%
'Afro-Descendant', while 2.7% declared to belong to an Amerindian origin
group, and the rest (1.1%) mentioned that they are of 'other races'
(referring to other ethnicities). Among those who recognized themselves
as Amerindians, 58% said they were of the Wayúu ethnic group, 7% warao,
5% kariña, 4% pemon, 3% piaroa, 3% jivi, 3% añu, 3% cumanagoto, 2%
yukpa, 2% chaima, 1% Yanomami and other peoples 9%.
They are a minority group that in 2011 represented 2.7% of the total population of the country, with a total of 1,511,329 ethnic people according to the 2011 Census of Venezuela, of which small groups located in the most isolated and remote regions of the country keep their culture intact. The indigenous people in contact with the white and mestizo man of the city have a certain assimilation, putting their culture in danger of disappearing due to the influences of neighboring countries. The indigenous influence is limited to the vocabulary of some words - such as place names - and gastronomy.
The Venezuelan migration crisis, also called the Venezuelan exodus, is a humanitarian crisis due to the increase in the migratory flow from Venezuela dating back to 2016. In 2015 there were 697,562 Venezuelans abroad, which represented 2.3% of the total population. In 2017 it was almost 5.4% of the country's population, about one million 421 thousand people. In 2018, 2.3 million Venezuelans are outside their country, approximately 7% of the population. Colombia is the country with the largest immigrant population of Venezuelan origin in the world, with 1,626,000 people in 2019.
Venezuela is home to an important colony of Italians, Spaniards,
Portuguese, Arabs and Chinese, as well as a large number of people from
Colombia and also from the Southern Cone and the Caribbean. With the
beginning of oil exploitation in 1914, companies and citizens largely
from the United States were established. Subsequently, on the occasion
of the postwar, Venezuela received the third largest wave of European
immigration from America. Immigrants mainly from Italy and Spain, and
new immigrants from Portugal, the Middle East, Germany, Croatia,
Switzerland, the Netherlands, China, Hungary, Turkey, Ukraine, Poland,
Armenia, and Russia, among others, encouraged at the same time by the
immigration and colonization program implemented by the Government.
This process created large communities among which Italo-Venezuelans,
Hispanic-Venezuelans and Luso-Venezuelans stand out. According to
official data from Spain, Venezuela is the third country in the world to
have the largest community of Spaniards. It occupies the same position
in the case of the Italian community, but only at the Latin American
level. The Lusitanian community is the second after Brazil.
During the 1970s, Venezuela received immigration from various Latin
American countries, primarily from Colombia, Peru and Ecuador. To this
was added an immigration from the Southern Cone of people fleeing
dictatorships and who saw in Venezuela a way out of their difficult
situation. These continuous waves of migration increased the country's
complex racial mosaic. The Venezuelan population born in other countries
represented 4.4% of the national total. The largest immigration comes
from Colombia, Spain, Portugal and Italy, among other countries such as
Haiti, the Dominican Republic, Trinidad and Tobago, with Venezuela being
the second Latin American country to have more immigration from both
Europe and America itself, behind Argentina.
Education has been free and compulsory since June 27, 1870, by decree
of President Antonio Guzmán Blanco, while on August 3, 1910, during the
government of Juan Vicente Gómez, the Code of Public Instruction of June
25 was published in the Official Gazette nº 11.068, 11.069 and 11.070,
which establishes that education in Venezuela is divided into public,
subsidized and private.
In Venezuela, education is structured at
the preschool, basic, diversified and higher levels. It is regulated by
the Organic Law of Education, which gives it a compulsory character from
preschool to the diversified middle level (from 6 to 15 years), and free
of charge in schools administered directly by the State up to the
undergraduate level. In this area, the State has the power to create
the relevant services to facilitate and maintain access to all types of
education.
According to official data, for the academic period
2005-2006 a total of 1 010 946 children were enrolled in preschool
education.309 Basic education accounted for approximately 4,885,779
registered for the same period, while 671,140 students were registered
in middle or secondary, diversified and vocational education centers.
The country also had the figure of 25,835 schools and educational units
for these three levels.
The evolution of literacy has been
increasing and especially accelerated during the period 1950-2005. In
the 1970s, when Venezuela was experiencing enormous growth due to the
sale of oil, the literacy rate increased from 77% to 93% until 1999,
being one of the highest literacy rates in the region. The literacy
rate among the inhabitants over the age of 14 increased from 52.2% in
1950 to 95.39% in 2015. In 2005, Venezuela declared itself an
illiteracy-free territory, after one and a half million people enrolled
in school between 2003 and 2005. This announcement, however,
contradicted the official statistics and projections on the subject.
Likewise, in the United Nations Human Development Index, Venezuela
(0.711) is at 71.° place in terms of average years of study worldwide
and in the 8. Ranked ° in Latin America, the countries with the best
education in Latin America until 2007 were Cuba (0.993), Uruguay (0.955)
and Argentina (0.946), although since then Cuba has not been included in
the indicators.
The government of Venezuela manages a social security system that
covers, among others, work accidents, illnesses and pensions. Life
expectancy is 71.5 years for men and 77.8 years for women, according to
2006 estimates.
Most of the deaths and deaths on holidays are
caused by accidents induced by the intake of alcohol, and by
non-compliance with safety regulations such as seat belts, among others.
Certain diseases are located mostly in rural areas of Venezuela, due
to the lack of sanitation of these areas. In the 1940s, an intense
campaign was carried out to fumigate with DDT and eliminate the
mosquitoes that transmit malaria, yellow fever and Chagas disease.
However, since the 1970s, these mosquito-borne diseases have increased
again.
Since 2007 and 2008, several health indicators showed a
significant deterioration. Thus, infant mortality increased from 4,747
deaths in children under 1 year of age in 2007 to 11,466 deaths in 2016
and maternal mortality in the same period from 198 maternal deaths to
756. While 31,719 cases of malaria were registered in 2008, this number
rose to 240,613 in 2016.
The Venezuelan Constitution recognizes Spanish and the languages of
the Venezuelan indigenous peoples as official. Spanish is the mother
tongue of most Venezuelans. The variant of Spanish used is Venezuelan
Spanish, which in turn is divided into several dialects.
The
languages of the Venezuelan indigenous people are spoken by less than 1%
of the total population of Venezuela. Among these languages are
Wayuunaiki, Warao, Pemon and others.
The Venezuelan sign language
(LSV) is not constitutionally an official language, however, it is used
by the deaf culture of the country and constitutionally the deaf and
mute have the right to express themselves and communicate under this
language. Generally, Venezuelan Sign Language is used in television
newscasts by interpreters.
Immigrants from other countries use
their own languages, in addition to Spanish. Among the most widely
spoken foreign languages are Arabic, Chinese, English, Italian and
Portuguese. English is used as a native language by Venezuelans living
in towns near Guyana, such as San Martín de Turumbán. As for dialects,
Portuñol is spoken on the border with Brazil, especially in Santa Elena
de Uairén. Coloniero German is a German dialect used in the Tovar
Colony, in the state of Aragua.
The National Constitution establishes freedom of worship. Christians
make up more than 80% of the population. Among these, approximately 71%
identify as Catholic. About 17% belong to evangelical churches, the
Anglican Church and other Protestant groups such as Jehovah's Witnesses,
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Seventh-day
Adventist Church. There are also small communities of Orthodox
Christians.
2% of Venezuelans are members of other religions such
as Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism and Judaism. Practitioners of religions
with pre-Hispanic roots represent another 2% of the population. Atheists
are 2% of Venezuelans, while agnostics are 6%. On the other hand,
Santeria has followers among the Afro-descendant population.
Among the popular religious manifestations of Venezuela is the dancing
Devils of Corpus Christi. This manifestation is carried out in various
regions of the country by different groups called brotherhoods or
brotherhoods, which celebrate the presence of Christ in the Blessed
Sacrament of the Eucharist in accordance with the doctrine of
Catholicism. In total there are 11 brotherhoods that group more than
five thousand people, the most famous of them is the dancing devils of
Yare. These manifestations were recognized by UNESCO as Intangible
Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2012. Likewise, the Parranda de San
Pedro is another religious festival proclaimed intangible cultural
heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.
Crime in Venezuela is a problem that affects the whole country,
although it is not known exactly how serious the problem is because NGOs
handle unofficial information and they do not have how to verify
official information about crime in Venezuela. Venezuela was ranked as
the most insecure nation in the world according to Gallup polls in 2013
and 2015. In 2013, only 19% of Venezuelans felt safe walking alone at
night, with almost a quarter of respondents indicating that they or a
family member had been mugged in the last year. The situation worsened
when only 14% felt safe in 2015, the lowest global percentage recorded
since 2005. The country's intentional homicide rate is also one of the
highest in the world.
According to the United Nations, this type
of problems is due to the bad political and economic situation in the
country. The United States Department of State defines Venezuela as "a
country of origin, transit, and destination for men, women, and children
subjected to sex trafficking and slave labor." As a result of the high
levels of crime, Venezuelans have been forced to modify some life
habits.
The infrastructure in Venezuela had one of its greatest periods of
growth under the autocratic government of General Marcos Pérez Jiménez,
and then in the oil booms of the following years. The General Rafael
Urdaneta Bridge over Lake Maracaibo, with 8.7 kilometers in length, was
at the time of its construction the longest in the world of its kind.
Historically, to talk about infrastructure in the country was to talk
about a set of well-articulated systems that were well maintained.
However, with the budget cuts made during the economic crisis of 2013, a
progressive neglect was forced. This, coupled with a problem of
insufficiency in recent years, has given rise to recent programs for
their rescue. The country today has important highways to which is
added a vast network of roads that cover a high percentage of the
national territory, which are used by a large number of bus lines that
connect the entire territory, being internationally recognized for their
low prices. As a whole, the country is articulated by nine main
highways: the Caracas - La Guaira Highway that connects the capital of
the country with the main air terminal and with the second Venezuelan
seaport, the Gran Mariscal de Ayacucho Highway that connects the city of
Caracas with the Venezuelan east, the Regional Highway of the Center
that connects the main roads of the country, the José Antonio Páez
Highway that crosses the heart of Los Llanos from Barinas to Valencia,
the Northern Bypass of Barquisimeto, the Valencia Highway - Puerto
Cabello that connects the main industrial center with the first seaport
of the country, the Centro Occidental Highway that links the city of
Barquisimeto with Puerto Cabello, the Barquisimeto-Acarigua Highway that
allows transportation between the Central-Western regions and Los Llanos
as well as the Lara-Zulia Highway that connects the capitals of the
aforementioned states.
The country has approximately 360
airports, of which 11 are classified as international and two of them
are among the most prominent in Latin America: the Simón Bolívar
International Airport in Caracas, which carries more than nine million
passengers annually, and the Santiago Mariño de Porlamar Caribbean
International Airport, which carries just over two and a half million
passengers. These, along with the La Chinita International Airport in
Maracaibo, the Arturo Michelena International Airport in Valencia, the
Oriente General José Antonio Anzoátegui International Airport in
Barcelona, the Manuel Piar International Airport in Ciudad Guayana and
the Josefa Camejo Las Piedras International Airport in Punto Fijo, are
the main ones in the country.
Due to the low cost of car fuel,
the country's railways have traditionally been scarce, compared to other
countries on the continent. There have been railway projects in
different governments and the last one was taken up in 2004 by the
Autonomous Institute of State Railways, through the National Railway
System. The same, which has an expected completion in 20 years,339
foresees its reach around 13,600 km on rails. Today the section between
Caracas and the Tuy Valleys is in operation, which has the largest
railway tunnel in Latin America.
Among the infrastructure
expansion projects is the third bridge over the Orinoco River between
the towns of Cabruta and Caicara del Orinoco, which is the third
structure to be built over the Orinoco River, after the Angostura Bridge
and the Orinoquia Bridge, which are the longest suspension bridges in
Latin America, as well as the Second Bridge Over Lake Maracaibo that
would link the Venezuelan cities of Santa Cruz de Mara and Punta de
Palmas located on both sides of Lake Maracaibo.
Venezuela resumed
the process of construction and completion of new high-level
infrastructures, such as the Caruachi Dam, the railway routes between
Caracas - Cúa and between Puerto Cabello - La Encrucijada, the opening
or expansion of metropolitan railway systems in Maracaibo, Valencia, Los
Teques and in Guarenas and Guatire. Of those existing so far, the
Caracas Metro is the oldest and the most developed, reaching 54.2
kilometers in length. In addition to this, there has been the
installation of rapid transit bus networks such as the Tromerca in
Mérida, the Transbarca in Barquisimeto, the TransMaracay in Maracay, the
TransBolívar in Ciudad Guayana, and the BusCaracas in Distrito Capital
as well as an urban cable car system such as the Metrocable, designed to
transport the inhabitants of the mountainous neighborhoods of Caracas
and the Trolcable that allows better communication between the city of
Mérida and its suburbs located in the Chama River basin.
The government regulator of telecommunications in Venezuela, CONATEL,
counted in its statistics for September 2016 a total of 7,677,354
subscribers to local fixed telephony, which is managed throughout the
Venezuelan territory by CANTV, founded in 1930 under the concession
scheme. This company was gradually nationalized between 1953 and 1973;
it was privatized in 1991 and was nationalized again in 2007.
According to the same data presented by the institute, for the same
period there were a total of 29,158,082 mobile phone lines, which
translates into approximately 94 out of every 100 people own a cell
phone line. The main companies in this sector are Movilnet, Movistar -
formerly known as Telcel - and Digitel, each with its own network.
CANTV also provides Internet services in connection with switched
line and broadband. For the third quarter of 2016, there were about
16,624,862 network subscribers and a penetration of 18,547,827 users. In
September 2016, Internet use had increased by 2.74% compared to the
previous year. With this figure, it is estimated that 62 out of every
100 inhabitants are Internet service users. The number of web pages
with Venezuelan domain reached a total of 145 <761 sites in June 2009.
Other Internet providers in the country have been companies that offer
cable television, such as NetUno, Inter - which also provides a fixed
telephone service - and Supercable. In the latter field there were
2,165,787 subscribers, with 32 out of every 100 households receiving a
paid signal.
As of 2012, according to the National Telecommunications Commission
of Venezuela, 70.36% of radio and television stations are in private
hands, 4.58% are state-owned and 25.05% are community media. The media
belonging to the Venezuelan State are part of the Bolivarian
Communication and Information System.
The Constitution of
Venezuela protects freedom of expression and freedom of the press,
establishing that communication is free and plural. Article 57 of the
Constitution provides that
Everyone has the right to freely express
his thoughts, ideas or opinions by voice, in writing or by any other
form of expression, and to make use of any means of communication and
dissemination for this purpose, without censorship being established.
Anonymity, war propaganda, discriminatory messages, and those that
promote religious intolerance are not allowed.
The NGO Reporters
Without Borders, in its 2013 annual report, ranked the country 117th out
of 179 countries evaluated regarding the degree of existing press
freedom, lowering the evaluation to 139th out of 180 countries in the
2016 report.
The most widely distributed newspapers are the Latest News morning newspapers, El Nacional, El Universal, Tal Cual, El Mundo, Economía y Negocios, the Líder and Meridiano sports newspapers. El Correo del Orinoco is a newspaper owned by the Venezuelan state. Outside Caracas there are important local newspapers such as Panorama (Maracaibo, Zulia state); El Carabobeño (Valencia, Carabobo state); El Impulso and El Informador (Barquisimeto, Lara state); El Siglo (Maracay, Aragua); El Tiempo (Puerto la Cruz, Anzoátegui state); Diario Frontera (Mérida, part of Táchira, and South of Lake Maracaibo); Pico Bolívar (Mérida) and La Nación (San Cristóbal, Táchira). There are also newspapers in other languages, aimed at foreign communities in the country, such as El Correio de Venezuela (Portuguese) and La Voce d'Italia (Italian).
Main articles: Television of Venezuela, List of Free-to-air TV
channels in Venezuela, List of subscription TV channels in Venezuela,
Digital terrestrial television in Venezuela and List of Telenovelas and
series of Venezuela.
The free-to-air television networks with the
greatest coverage of Venezuelan territory are the state-owned Venezolana
de Televisión (f. 1964), TVEs (Televisora Venezolana Social) (f. 2007),
ViVe (f. 2003); and the private Venevisión (f. 1961) and Televen (f.
1988).
There are small-scale free-to-air television stations, but
with a presence throughout the country through subscription television,
such as the Bolivarian National Armed Forces Television station (d.
2014), the news and opinion channel Globovisión (d. 1994), the
legislative channel ANTV (d. 2016), Vepaco TV (f. 2015), the sports
channel Meridiano Televisión (f. 1996) and the entertainment and variety
channel Canal I (f. 2007). Ve Plus, Sun Channel and IVC Networks are TV
stations that are only watched through subscription television. There
are also regional television channels such as Ávila TV (Caracas),
Televisora Regional del Táchira (San Cristóbal, Táchira state),
Telecaribe and Televisora de Oriente (Anzoátegui state), Televisora
Andina de Mérida (Mérida state), PortuTV (Portuguese state), among
others.
National Radio of Venezuela (RNV) is the main radio network of the
Venezuelan state. Other state-owned radio circuits are YVKE Mundial
Radio and the PDVSA Radio Circuit. There are private radio networks with
national coverage such as Circuito Líder, Rumbera Network, FM Center,
Circuito Unión Radio, Circuito Radio Venezuela, Ven fm, Circuito
Nacional Belfort, Circuito X, among others. By February 2014, the
Venezuelan Chamber of the Broadcasting Industry grouped more than 400
private broadcasters.
There are many short-range community radio
stations throughout Venezuela. They receive financial and technical
support from the Ministry of People's Power for Communication and
Information. These stations are members of the National Community
Broadcasting Circuit. The International Channel of National Radio of
Venezuela is the international shortwave service of National Radio of
Venezuela. The Radio of the South aims to integrate communicationally
countries of Latin America, Africa, Asia and even the United States,
Canada and Europe.
The culture of Venezuela is a melting pot that basically integrates three different families: the indigenous, the African and the European. The first two in turn had cultures differentiated according to the tribes. The transculturation and assimilation, typical of a cultural syncretism, conditioned to arrive at the current Venezuelan culture, similar in many aspects to the rest of Latin America, although the natural environment makes that there are important differences. The indigenous influence is limited to a few words in the lexicon and gastronomy. The African influence in the same way, in addition to musical instruments such as the drum. The Spanish influence was more important and in particular came from the regions of Andalusia and Extremadura, places of origin of the majority of settlers in the Caribbean area during the colonial era. As an example of this, we can mention the buildings, part of the music, the Catholic religion and the language. An obvious Spanish influence are bullfights and certain features of gastronomy. Venezuela was also enriched by other currents of Antillean and European origin in the nineteenth century, especially of French origin. In the most recent stage, demonstrations of American origin and the new immigration of Spanish, Italian and Portuguese origin broke out in the big cities and the oil regions, increasing the already complex cultural mosaic. For example, from the United States comes the influence of the taste for baseball and Moderna architectural constructions.
Venezuelan literature began to develop from the colonial era, with
addresses to the new lands and their original inhabitants. Chronicles
and various styles of poetry were the main literary manifestations
during the eighteenth century. In this first period, the figure of
Andrés Bello stands out, a poet, philologist, grammarian and educator of
universal renown. Bello developed works such as Allocution to Poetry
(1823) and Silva to the Agriculture of the Torrid Zone (1826), which
were precursors of the Americanist theme that would develop later in
other areas of the continent. Simón Rodríguez represents one more
example of renown throughout the continent, with works such as
Sociedades Americanas (1828), Defensa de Bolívar (1830), Observaciones
sobre el terreno de Vincocaya (1830), and Luces y virtudes sociales
(1834).
The entry into the nineteenth century and Independence
saw the birth of a refined political literature, including the
autobiography of Francisco de Miranda and the letters of Bolívar, as
well as an oratory of great rhetorical and stylistic beauty that would
permeate the writings of the most diverse heroes of the emancipatory
process. After Independence, Venezuelan literature began to diversify,
but it only began to evolve rapidly in the time of Guzmán Blanco.
Highlights during the time mediated to the emancipation of Venezuela
from the Gran Colombia, the life of the poet, political philologist and
historian Zuliano Rafael María Baralt, the first Latin American to
occupy an armchair of number in the Royal Spanish Academy and director
of the first history book of Venezuela (1887), in addition to a series
of publications that framed contributions to the Hispanic letter with
the first Matrix Dictionary of the Castilian Language (1850) and the
Dictionary of Gallicisms (1855); of countless odes such as To
Christopher Columbus (1849) and his most famous Farewell to the Homeland
(1843), and several political essays.
Romanticism, the first
literary genre of importance in Venezuela, developed in the middle of
that period, with figures such as Juan Antonio Pérez Bonalde and Eduardo
Blanco standing out within this movement. At the end of the nineteenth
century modernism took place and at the beginning of the twentieth
century the appearance of avant-garde took place. Costumbrismo, with
romantic roots, took deep root in Venezuela by the hand of authors such
as Nicanor Bolet Peraza, Daniel Mendoza and Fermín Toro.
From
1880 a literary movement and tradition of broader ambition began to take
shape in Venezuela.353 Cecilio Acosta and Aristides Rojas, among others,
pointed out the transition to new intellectual and creative positions.
In the field of modernism, Manuel Díaz Rodríguez and Luis Urbaneja
Achelpohl stood out, among others.
The year 1910 is usually taken
as the starting point of new aesthetic experiences that react against
modernism and try to write about common life, so that a new literary
expression of a realistic character is emerging, in which old essences
of costumbrism reappear. At this moment in the trajectory of the
Venezuelan novel, the names of José Rafael Pocaterra (Memoirs of a
Venezuelan of the decadence), Teresa de la Parra (Ifigenia) and the
great figure of Rómulo Gallegos are relevant, who founded the school of
Latin American Magical Realism, with works such as Doña Bárbara (1929),
Cantaclaro (1934), and Canaima (1935).
Other well-known
Venezuelan authors are Andrés Eloy Blanco, Arturo Uslar Pietri (who
introduced the term Magical Realism to literature), Miguel Otero Silva,
Mariano Picón Salas, Guillermo Meneses, Adriano González León, Antonia
Palacios, José Antonio Ramos Sucre, Salvador Garmendia, Francisco Lazo
Martí, Rafael Cadenas, José Ignacio Cabrujas, and Víctor Bravo, among
others. As part of the literary work, the Rómulo Gallegos Prize for the
most outstanding novel in the Spanish-speaking world is organized
biannually in Venezuela, an award considered by many to be the most
important literary award in Latin America.
Venezuelan music is characterized by mixing Spanish and African
elements, typical of belonging to a predominantly mestizo people. The
most representative genre of the country is Llanera music, which uses
instruments such as the cuatro, the harp, the maracas, the bandola and
the capachos. This rhythm has come to be consecrated as the music of
national identity, to the point that the denomination is given abroad to
Venezuelans as llaneros. This genus had its origin in the region now
included in the states of Apure, Barinas, Guárico, Cojedes and
Portuguesa, where it is cultivated with assinuity.
Another genre
of great cultural significance is the gaita, original of the Zulia -
although it has variants in the east of the country. Today it is a genre
that is related to Christmas throughout Venezuela. Among the exponents
of the Zulian gaita, the reverential respect to Ricardo Aguirre stands
out, who composed what is considered the anthem of the genre, The Zulian
Grey.
The Venezuelan waltz is also well-known, and was developed
especially by great guitar masters such as Antonio Lauro and Alirio
Díaz. Although it is a derivative of the European waltz, it is nourished
by the typical musical characteristics of the country, being performed
with the classical instruments of Llanera music, including the guitar,
the tiple, the piano and the clarinet. It has its roots in the
central-western region of the country and in the Andean region, where
the violin and mandolin are used.
The Venezuelan's musical taste
is very different from that of South American countries, only with
Colombia do they have some tastes in common such as vallenato on the
coast and llanera music, because they are borderline. It is distinctly
Caribbean: salsa and merengue is music to listen to and not just to
dance to, as in other countries. Pop and hip hop are also genres that
are very popular among young people.
The most representative
dance of the Venezuelan nation is the joropo. It has a fast movement at
a ternary rhythm, which includes a colorful tapping and a slight
reference to the European waltz, so it represents the most genuine
expressive form among the manifestations of colonial music.
Given
the influence and proximity of Anglo-American countries, heavy metal,
reggae and ska are also produced, as well as other rock and pop genres,
which are heard especially among the youth communities of large cities.
Likewise, electronic music made in Venezuela has been enjoying greater
international recognition.
Among all the exponents of Venezuelan
music, the most celebrated is Simón Díaz, whose cult and interpretation
of Llanera music, coupled with his personality, has earned him to be
considered the most important Venezuelan folklorist of all time. His
tune Caballo viejo has been widely covered and translated into several
languages around the world. In 2008 Díaz received an Honorary Grammy
Award from the Board of Directors of the Latin American Recording
Academy.
Also in classical music, Venezuela has stood out in
recent years for performing on European stages by the Simón Bolívar
Symphony Orchestra, gaining some fame internationally and positioning
itself as one of the best orchestras in the world with its conductor
Gustavo Dudamel who also conducts the Los Angeles Philharmonic
Orchestra.
Venezuelan painting and sculpture have traditionally been influenced
by the historical theme and the political process lived by the country
in its Independence. Many nineteenth-century paintings and sculptures
are often presented as representations of key moments in history, heroic
deeds, and allegories of the nation. Those who stood out in this phase
were Juan Lovera, Arturo Michelena, Martín Tovar y Tovar, Tito Salas,
among others. However, romantic painting had its greatest exponent in
Cristóbal Rojas, who mostly departed from these generalized themes.
Among those who have contributed greatly to kinetic art have been Carlos
Cruz-Díez, Jesús Soto and Juvenal Ravelo. This particular trend has
become very popular in the country, and there are works of this type in
various cultural institutions, and even on highways, in the Subway and
in airports such as the one in Maiquetía. Abstractionism and symbolism
had one of their greatest developers in Armando Reverón, whose work is
beginning to be rediscovered and recognized internationally.
Alejandro Otero also stood out in abstractionism and kineticism, while
social realism was linked to the work of César Rengifo. Great landscape
painters have been Manuel Cabré, Luis Álvarez de Lugo, among others,
standing out in the painting of the El Ávila hill. Another name is Pedro
León Zapata, recognized for being a famous cartoonist. The sculpture
highlights Francisco Narváez, Alejandro Colina, Gertrud Goldschmidt, Lía
Bermúdez, among others. Activities and creations in the field of graphic
design have also had a special place in the country. There are also many
artists who have dedicated themselves to the production of contemporary
art, appearing on the national and international scene. Highlights
include the work of Yucef Merhi, a pioneer of digital art, as well as
the work of José Antonio Hernández-Díez.
The history of handicrafts and artisans cannot be separated from
antecedents that date back more than 14,000 years, when the first
Amerindian settlers inhabited the current territory of Venezuela. These
developed techniques typical of hunter-gatherer societies for the
carving of stones and woods, in order to create objects that favored
their interaction with the environment and the use of their resources.
Some time later, when they acquired the knowledge that allowed them
to treat other natural resources, such as clay, they managed to capture
part of their world and cosmogony on the modeled earth and cuisine. The
first ceramic vestiges come from the middle Orinoco, from the cultural
traditions known as Saladoid and Barrancoid. Textiles and basketry were
used in a utilitarian way and in sacred festivals. In the indigenous
cemeteries of Quíbor, remains of entire plots that served as support for
the corpses have been found. Such baskets were used as urns where parts
of the already dried skeleton were placed to be deposited in other
spaces as secondary burials. Some archaeological fragments of ceramics
show impressions of basketry that make it seem that certain patterns
served as a support for large pots or plates, while the pieces were
decorated or finished before being burned. Many of the techniques
practiced in current crafts had their birth in this historical period.
The architectural works in the country can be traced back to the year
1000 BC, when the first settlers carried out earthworks with a view to
agrarian development, also mastering the management of stone for
buildings intended for storage. The later indigenous architecture was
developed in aquatic and jungle spaces, having its most representative
examples in the palafitos, the shabonos and the churuatas (huts) of
collective interest, characterized by a conical tip and circular
structure. The latter are the most widespread in the country, have a
specificity according to each indigenous ethnicity and have become an
icon of Venezuelan culture.
With the establishment of the Colony,
an architecture characterized above all by sobriety and simplicity is
achieved. Given the little perception of economic geology that was
initially given to the then province, he opted for savings in the
resources allocated for construction, which determined a marked modesty
in the buildings of this phase. Bahareque and adobe houses, with large
windows, and built around leafy courtyards and hallways, proliferated to
become the most common for the time. The popular housing is noticeable
without many ostentations, and the religious architecture also remained
attached to that spirit, which lasted throughout the nineteenth century.
However, the picturesque and vivid colors with which the exterior walls
of the houses are decorated are characteristic of the colonial
architecture of the country, particularly in the warmer cities, such as
Coro and Maracaibo.
The twentieth century was characterized more
by its urban development tending to modernization. The neo-Baroque and
Moorish influence were evident in the construction of the National
Theater and the New Circus, by notable architects such as Alejandro
Chataing. Constructions such as the Teresa Carreño Theater and the
Towers of the Simon Bolivar Center, as well as the El Silencio
Redevelopment and the Ciudad Universitaria de Caracas (carried out by
Carlos Raúl Villanueva), reveal the impetus that was given to modernist
architecture in the country, already in the middle of the century. Also
noteworthy are the imposing skyscrapers in the capital built during the
oil boom, with the Twin Towers of Parque Central standing out.
The gastronomy of Venezuela is a varied way of preparing foods and
drinks made in that country, constituting the result of the cultural and
gastronomic mixture from Europe — especially from Spain, Italy, Germany,
France, the Netherlands and Portugal — and Africa — through the
populations of slaves carried by the Spaniards — with the gastronomy of
the indigenous peoples of the country.
Although it has these
features universally, Venezuelan gastronomy is as variable and diverse
as the territory itself. In the capital region of the country there is
greater diversity because it is a point of confluence, since it is the
center of the productive areas, and where there is greater Spanish,
Italian and other European influence. In the eastern region, being a
Caribbean area, a cuisine based on fish, lobsters and seafood with pasta
or rice predominates, also revealing the influence of European maritime
foods. The consumption of beef and hunted animals is well known in Los
Llanos, as well as its large production of cheese and dairy products.
Zulia, the west of the country and Guyana do not distance themselves
much from these same features, differing in goat, goat and rabbit meat,
cheeses such as palmita in the first two, and in the presence of corn in
the latter region, where cheeses such as Guayanese, hand cheeses, among
others, are produced. In the Andes there is a more European orientation,
where more vegetables and tubers, wheat, sheep meat, farmed trout and
dairy products are consumed.
The Venezuelan cuisine has other
well-known dishes such as the arepa, a kind of roasted bun with a
circular shape of corn dough that is consumed stuffed with other foods
or used as a side dish, the cahapas, the goat in coconut, the pepiada
queen, the carne en vara, the black roast, the Creole grill, mondongo
soup, Andean pisca and buns pelones among others. The Tequeños, besides
being a cultural heritage, are the most appreciated type of appetizer in
the country, and the preparation of empanadas is also very extensive. Of
foreign contribution are the fabada (from Spain) and the pasticho (from
Italy). Among the most widespread drinks are the Venezuelan chicha and
the papelón with lemon. Beer is the most widely consumed alcoholic
beverage, and cream punch is also produced. Venezuelan rums have a great
tradition and are among the best in the world.
Venezuelan cinema began production in 1896, barely a year after the
Lumière brothers' first production in France. The national cinema also
takes one of its most important steps in 1934 when the headquarters of
the national laboratories and Maracay Films were installed in the city
of Maracay. In this laboratory The Miracle of the Lake is filmed, the
first color documentary made in Venezuela and Latin America.
Venezuelan cinema, in turn, has been characterized by an irregular
production, although it lived a golden era in the 1970s and 1980s with
filmmakers such as Mauricio Walerstein, Clemente de la Cerda and Roman
Chalbaud, the latter author of the film considered by many the best
exponent of Venezuelan cinema: The Fish that Smokes (1977). Perhaps the
most successful filmmaker in the country has been Margot Benacerraf, who
won the Palme d'Or at the 1959 Cannes Film Festival for Venezuela with
her work Araya. The most representative directors are Fina Torres, Elia
Schneider, Alberto Arvelo, José Ramón Novoa and Diego Rísquez. The
governing body is the Autonomous National Center of Cinematography.
The five most watched films in the history of Venezuelan cinema are
Papita, maní, tostón (2013) by Luis Carlos Hueck (with 1,840,281 million
viewers), Homicidio culposo (1984) by César Bolívar (1,335,552), Macu,
the policeman's wife (1987) by Solveig Hoogesteijn (1,180,621),
Hijacking express (2005) by Jonathan Jakubowicz, and The Zero hour (
2010) by Diego Velasco.
On the other hand, Venezuelan theatrical
manifestations are poorly documented during the pre-Columbian period,
partly due to the Eurocentric vision of the world and the little
development of the local indigenous tribes, compared to the Aztecs,
Mayans and Incas. However, the theater fulfilled an important function
in terms of spreading the identity of the tribe, developing more in the
Venezuelan Andes, where it was used for educational and religious
purposes. The professionalization of the theater would arrive during the
Colony, towards the seventeenth century. It has been said that modern
Venezuelan theater has been influenced in large part by Tennessee
Williams' pieces for their treatment of the problematic of the human
being, and was massed through the so-called Holy Trinity of Venezuelan
theater: José Ignacio Cabrujas, Isaac Chocrón and Moderna Roman
Chalbaud. His activity is profuse and he seeks to enrich himself with
universal works and new scenic techniques. There are numerous theater
groups such as the National Theater Company, the Rajatabla, Theja, the
Venezuelan Chair of the Stage.
The origins of the sport in Venezuela can be traced back to the
colonial era, when cattle were introduced to the country in the second
half of the sixteenth century. This would give rise to coleo, an
equestrian sport that consists of knocking down a bull by the tail,
arising from agricultural tasks in the plains. Of the same date, the
Creole balls are counted, a game similar to boccia and petanque. The
latter modality was introduced by Spanish monks in the same historical
period, but its popularity would grow already in the twentieth century.
Both practices have a long tradition in the country. Some martial arts
such as the Tocuyan garrote and the karive submission combat are also
native.
Baseball is the main sport in the country. The popularity
of this sport grew extraordinarily after, in 1941, this South American
nation was crowned in the Baseball World Cup. In this area, Venezuela
has excelled notably, taking seven Caribbean Series titles, and has been
a Baseball World Cup gold medalist three times. The Venezuelan
Professional Baseball League, founded in 1945, is the one that organizes
the main annual competition in the field, and has eight teams. In
addition, Venezuela is the second largest exporter of baseball players,
surpassed only by the Dominican Republic. In 2008, a total of 729
Venezuelan baseball players had a contract in foreign professional
baseball. It is very important for the country to follow the sports
career of Venezuelans in the American baseball league. It should be
noted that Venezuela is listed as one of the world powers in this sport.
It also has a women's baseball team that won the bronze medal at the
baseball world Cup in that category in 2016.
Basketball is
considered one of the most popular sports in the country. This sports
discipline is represented by the Venezuelan Basketball Federation (FVB)
affiliated to FIBA. Its activity is divided into the Professional League
and the National League. The team in international events participated
in the 1992 Barcelona Olympics, being its only Olympic participation,
and in the 1990, 2002, 2006 and 2023 World Cups. He has also qualified
to several Tournaments of the Americas (Pre-Olympic), FIBA Americas
Championships (Pre-World) and Pan American Games. Several Venezuelans
have participated in the NBA, the most recognized being Carl Herrera.
The greatest feat of Venezuelan basketball so far has been the gold
medal at the 2015 FIBA Americas Championship, and not least the three
titles of the South American Basketball Championship in 1991, 2014 and
2016.
Football has seen its popularity increase in recent years,
to become a sport that draws crowds in the country. Organized by the
Venezuelan Football Federation (FVF), affiliated to FIFA. The increase
in victories and the quality of play of the Venezuela national football
team since 2001 has stimulated the development in this discipline, as
well as the attraction of fans. Venezuela organized a Copa América for
the first time in its 42nd edition in 2007, although its best
participation in the tournament was in 2011 obtaining the fourth place
The greatest achievements of Venezuelan football have been two titles in
the South American Women's U-17 Championship in 2013 and 2016 and a
runner-up in the South American U-17 Football Championship of 2013. He
also reached the runner-up position at the 2017 Fifa U-20 World Cup. In
its futsal variation, Venezuela has achieved an important trajectory,
becoming champion at the AMF Futsal World Championship in 1997. In motor
sports, the most outstanding Venezuelan has been Johnny Cecotto. He
became the youngest world champion in motorcycling history by winning
the French Grand Prix in 350cc, adding the 750cc World Championship to
his titles. Carlos Lavado also stands out in this discipline, having won
the 250cc World Championship twice, and Pastor Maldonado, Formula 1
racing driver who won the Spanish Grand Prix in 2012.
On the
other hand, in individual sports the most prominent in Venezuela is
boxing, with a wide fan base. The country has projected great pugilists
internationally, and is followed with interest by Venezuelans. In winter
sports, Venezuela has excelled in Nordic skiing with César Baena. As for
athletics, in the triple jump, Venezuela has stood out thanks to Yulimar
Rojas who won the silver medal at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games, and five
years later she would become Olympic champion at the Tokyo 2020 Olympic
Games establishing a world record and Olympic record with a jump of
15.67 m.
In karate, Venezuela is the only country in Latin
America that is among the top 15 in the world, in the 12th place
specifically, thus harvesting so far 3 gold, 3 silver and 8 bronze
medals for a total of 14 in the Karate World Championship, being the
most outstanding exponent of this sport Antonio Díaz. Rugby has also
been played since the 1950s, introduced to the country by oil workers of
British origin. Today it is very popular at the university level.
Venezuela is distinguished for being a "factory of beauty queens",
since it holds the title of Miss Universe 7 times — international and
annual female beauty contest in which integral beauty is judged—, below
only the United States that has won it 9 times. In fact, it was the
Americans who helped introduce the contest in Venezuela. Miss Venezuela
began as a beauty pageant in 1952 sponsored by the Pan Am airline and a
company that manufactured swimsuits.
The country has more than
200 modeling academies where girls are trained from the age of 4 in
disciplines such as makeup, glamour, public speaking, photo-posing, body
expression, as well as other skills, since the industry of the reign has
become one of the most lucrative and efficient businesses in the
country. Hence, the reigns are part of popular culture in Venezuela
where about 600 beauty pageants are held every year. The writer Raúl
Gallegos noted in his 2016 book, "Crude Nation: How Oil Riches Ruined
Venezuela," "Oil wealth has nurtured a culture in which appearance is of
paramount importance." In turn, Venezuela has one of the highest rates
of cosmetic procedures per capita in the world.
The fame of
Venezuela when it comes to producing crown-winning queens has crossed
borders, since there are several candidates from other countries, who
hire the services of the modeling agencies of this country to train them
and thus have greater opportunities to win in the contests in which they
participate. The feminist movement in Venezuela has demonstrated over
the years against the cult of the contest.
In 1972, a group of
women inspired by the work of Simone de Beauvoir — catalogued as the
founder of contemporary feminism — gathered at the Municipal Theater of
Caracas, where the Miss Venezuela ceremony was taking place. They held
signs condemning the event and tried to spray paint the dresses of the
participants before the police arrived.
In Venezuela, in addition to recognizing the flag, the anthem and the
coat of arms as national symbols, other typical elements of the national
flora and fauna have been named as symbols of the nation. Namely:
The araguaney (Tabebuia chrysantha) has been the national tree since May
29, 1948. Its name is composed of a word of indigenous origin and the
combination of Greek words that mean golden flower, alluding to the
yellow color.
The orchid (Cattleya mossiae) was declared the national
flower on May 23, 1951. The species mossiae was discovered in Venezuela
in the 1830s.
The turpial (Icterus icterus) has been the national
bird since May 23, 1958. It is a bird with a wingspan of about 24
centimeters, which is distinguished by its colorful yellow-orange on the
entire body, except for the head and wings, which are black with white
parts, and a blue spot around the eyes.
Alma llanera is a joropo
premiered in 1914, whose music was composed by Pedro Elías Gutiérrez
based on a text by Rafael Bolívar Coronado. It is considered as the
second national anthem of Venezuela.
The liquiliqui is the national
typical costume of Venezuela, declared on March 17, 2017. It is mostly
used as male attire for parties and social events, as well as for the
joropo dance. It consists of jacket, trousers and espadrilles. In some
parts it is being made with vivos of different colors and used as a
common or dance costume with espadrilles.
Venezuela is the fourth country in Latin America in number of holidays. There are also very important festivities at the regional level due to their cultural significance, such as the Divina Pastora (January 14) in Lara, the Virgen de Consolación (August 15) in Tachira, the Virgen del Socorro (November 13) in Carabobo and the Virgen de Chiquinquirá (November 18) in Zulia, which is celebrated with the La Chinita Fair.