Located between the Caribbean Sea, the South Pacific and the South
Atlantic, South America is the wildest part of the new continent.
South America occupies a large part of the geographical region
called the "New World", America is sometimes considered as a single
continent and South America as a subcontinent. It is home to many unique
animal species, including llamas, anacondas, piranhas, jaguars, vicunas
and tapirs. The forests of the Amazon, however, have a high level of
biodiversity.
Its territory extends southeast
of the border between Panama and Colombia, according to most sources.
Others place the border along the Panama Canal. Geopolitically, the
entire State of Panama (including the segment east of the Panama Canal)
is generally considered part of North America or Central America.
On this continent are the highest waterfalls in the world, the Salto
Angel in Venezuela, and the largest river in terms of water flow, the
Amazon River, and the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest
peak highest is Aconcagua with 6 962 m above sea level), the driest
desert, the Atacama Desert, the largest rainforest, the Amazon, the
highest capital, La Paz in Bolivia, the highest commercial lake
navigable, Lake Titicaca, and the southernmost city in the world, the
city of Porto Toro in Chile.
South America is home
to a wide variety of climates: the hot humid climate of the Amazon
rainforest, the cold dry climate of Patagonia, the arid climate of the
Atacama Desert, the icy windy climate of Tierra del Fuego.
In the
western region, between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, there are some
of the wettest and driest areas on the planet: the Choco (Colombia,
Ecuador, Peru, Panama) and the Atacama Desert (Chile, Peru, Bolivia,
Argentina respectively) the climate is generally tropical: equatorial in
the Amazon region, humid in the savannah, steppe in the pampas, nival in
the Andes.
Background
Some archaeological finds lead us to
suppose a population prior to the arrival of the first men across the
Bering Strait, as the abundant presence of archaeological sites in South
America and the low number of these in the north of the continent would
indicate. The first evidence of agricultural practices in South America
dates back to around 6500 BC. The first to arrive in South America was
probably Amerigo Vespucci, whose first journey is dated 1497.
Colonization and had a great boost when it became known that there was
an empire rich in gold to the south. It was the empire of the Incas, and
was joined by Francisco Pizarro in 1527 and conquered in the following
years by the Spaniards. From the 16th century until the early 19th
century, therefore, most of South America was divided into colonies
governed mostly by Spain and Portugal. Later with independence these
colonies became republics, with the exception of French Guiana and the
Falkland Islands (and the closest islands occupied by the United
Kingdom), currently the only non-independent territories.
Spoken
languages
The five colonial languages of South America are Portuguese
52%, Spanish, English, Dutch and French >1%.
But there are also
non-European languages spoken such as the Guarani language, spoken
mainly in Paraguay.
Aconcagua Provincial Park takes its name from quechua word of “Ackon-Cauak”, which roughtly is translated as ‘Stone Sentinel’. Splendid Andes Mountain Range draws all types of thrill seekers ranging in difficulty including hiking, climbing, skiing and etc.
Machu Picchu is an ancient archeological Inca site 69 mi Northwest of Cusco in Peru. Peruvian government secured 326 sq km as a "Historical Sanctuary" to preserve Machu Picchu archaeological site. In 1983 Machu Picchu was added to a UNESCO World Heritage Site and in 2007 it was chosen as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.
The Inca Trail to a great Incan settlement of Machu Picchu is one of the greatest hikes you will ever undertake. It lies in a beautiful Andean mountain range and connects numerous ancient archaeological settlements along its way.
Nazca Lines are located 12 mi (20 km) North of Nazca in Peru. These lines were created between 500 BC and 500 AD these spectacular creations went largely unnoticed until 1927 than the pilot saw shapes of animals, trees and various geometric figures.
Colombia
Guyana
Suriname
Venezuela
French Guiana
Colombia and Venezuela stand out for their mix of
Andean culture, Amazon rainforest and a prodigious coastline of
paradisiacal beaches. Cartagena de Indias and Isla de Margarita are
just some of the destinations that receive thousands of tourists
each year who come to enjoy the favorable climate, temperate waters
and vegetation of the area. Urban areas such as Bogotá , Medellín ,
Cali and Caracas stand out when mixing their Hispanic origins with
modernity.
The Guyanas, meanwhile, are more exotic
destinations. The recent colonial past of Guyana and Surinam
contrasts with the jungle that covers their lands.
Bolivia
Ecuador
Peru
Colombia
In the heart of South
America, the Andes are enchanted by ancient ancient cultures and the
preserved baroque cities of colonial origin, such as Lima and Quito
. The pre-Columbian traditions have managed to maintain and
integrate with the current civilization, offering tourists their
particular magic in destinations such as Cusco or Machu Picchu .
Contrasting landscapes between jungle and desert can be found next
to beautiful and deserted beaches on the Pacific coasts. The
Titicaca , the highest navigable lake in the world, and the native
fauna of the Galapagos Islands are some of the highlights of this
area.
Brazil
The largest country in Latin America and
probably the most recognized worldwide, highlighting the Carnival ,
and the famous beaches of Rio de Janeiro , the giant " Amazon " or
the rich and cosmopolitan São Paulo , the largest city in the
southern hemisphere. However, Brazil is more than that, with a
territory that stretches from the Atlantic to almost touching the
Andes, incorporating places such as the Pantanal , one of the
largest wetlands in the world, the paradisiacal Parque Nacional dos
Lençois or the islands of Fernando de Noronha .
Its rich history
that mixes indigenous cultures, Portuguese colonialism and the
traditions of former African slaves, has allowed the emergence of
attractive cities such as Salvador de Bahia or the futuristic
capital, Brasilia.
Argentina
Chile
Paraguay
Uruguay
The southernmost part of the continent
is full of diversity on both sides of the Andes mountain range. In
the Pacific, the arid lands of Atacama contrast with the fjords and
glaciers that fall into the sea in Patagonia , while the Pampas and
their mountains extend from the Andes to the Atlantic. The lakes and
forests cover great extensions in the cordilleranos faldeos and the
coasts are populated with penguins and whales.
With one of
the highest living standards in the continent, you can also find a
vibrant urban life in its main cities. Buenos Aires is an icon of
western culture, although Valparaíso , Santiago or Montevideo are
not left behind.
Falkland
Islands · South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
One of the
most disputed territories in the world, the South Atlantic islands
are ancient remnants of the British Empire. Reclaimed to date by
Argentina, these islands are remote destinations outside of
traditional circuits. Its harsh climate and geography frame the
rugged landscapes and rich biodiversity.
Bogotá — a city of contrasts with a frenetic balance between the new
and the old; the most cultural of the South American capitals
Buenos
Aires — the city of tango and the most cosmopolitan of Argentina
Caracas — filled with theaters, shopping malls, museums, art galleries,
parks, and well-preserved colonial architecture
La Paz — built into a
canyon, the highest national capital in the world
Lima — the
sprawling coastal capital of Peru is a major gastronomic hub
Montevideo - the pleasant capital of Uruguay, located on the eastern
bank of the Rio de la Plata
Rio de Janeiro — famous for its
breathtaking scenery, beaches and annual carnival
Santiago de Chile -
Capital of Chile with many museums, events, theaters, restaurants and
bars
São Paulo — a hive of activity offering a vibrant nightlife and
a diverse cultural experience
Andes — the longest mountain range in the world and the highest
outside Asia
Canaima National Park — its main attraction is Angel
Falls, at 978 m, the highest waterfall on Earth
Easter Island — an
isolated Polynesian island famous for its mysterious history and giant
stone statues
Galapagos Islands — islands with unique fauna: this is
where Darwin collected evidence of natural selection
Iguazu Falls —
breathtaking waterfalls on the border of Argentina and Brazil
Machu
Picchu — high in the mountains, the lost city of the Incas is a
spectacular set of ruins
Pantanal - large wetlands with abundant
wildlife
Salar de Uyuni — Bolivia's seemingly endless salt flats
Tierra del Fuego — islands at the tip of South America, with rugged
landscapes, boating, and winter activities
A considerable number of the greatest natural wonders are found in
South America. Perhaps the first thing you'll notice when looking at a
map of the continent is the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon,
which covers much of Brazil. It also features the largest wetlands in
the world, Pantanal, Angel Falls, the world's tallest waterfall and the
best-known Iguazu Falls. Other notable bodies of water include the
Amazon River (by some measures the world's longest river and the one
with the largest drainage basin), the world's highest commercially
navigable body of water, Lake Titicaca, and the wide Rio de la Plata
(between Uruguay and Argentina) which is more like a bay in the Atlantic
Ocean.
To the west is the "backbone" of the continent - the
Andes. This mountain range, which is the longest in the world, contains
Aconcagua which with a height of nearly 7,000m is the tallest mountain
outside Asia. Because the Earth is thickest at the equator, Chimborazo
Peak (6,268m) is the furthest point in the world from the center of the
Earth. Right next to these towering mountains is the Atacama Desert, the
driest and perhaps the oldest in the world. The white spot that can be
seen from satellite footage is the Salar de Uyuni. Situated 3,656m above
sea level, it is – you guessed it – the largest salt flat in the world.
The Galapagos Islands, 1,000 km off the coast, have a unique fauna.
There are also several iconic and unique animals on land, including
llamas and other camelids, jaguars, capybaras, opossums, and monkeys, as
well as less pleasant, poisonous, or tropical disease-spreading
creatures. Another equally famous Pacific island is Easter Island.
While most people would think of South America as a rainforest or
desert, this is mostly but not entirely true: Los Glaciares National
Park in southwest Argentina will prove otherwise. Overall, the climate
and landscape of the far south is actually reminiscent of Norway or
parts of Canada. Here you can find Ushuaia, the southernmost city in the
world and a gateway to Antarctica. South America also holds the record
of La Paz as the highest national capital in the world, and in
Chacaltaya you will find the highest ski resort in the world.
It
is certainly not only in modern times that people have lived and worked
in the Andes even at altitudes where altitude sickness is likely to
contract. Particularly in Peru and Bolivia, you will find many of the
beautiful and famous archaeological sites connected by pre-Columbian
Inca trails. Among these the most famous is undoubtedly Machu Picchu ,
but places such as Chan Chan and Tiwanaku are also deservedly inscribed
on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Peru is also home to the Nazcalinee,
built 1500 years ago for an unknown purpose and only visible from the
air.
The European contribution to the local architecture includes
mining towns in the mountains and many churches and missions and other
colonial architecture along the coasts. Of course, in places like São
Paulo, Buenos Aires and Santiago de Chile you can also see skyscrapers
archetypal of any metropolis in the world. And let's not forget Rio de
Janeiro with its world famous Copacabana and Ipanema beaches with the
Sugar Loaf mountain, Pão de Açúcar, in the background.
South
America offers a variety of cultural experiences. In the Andes,
indigenous traditions and languages still live strong. The east and
south of the continent are more of a blend of cultures that immigrants
from Europe, Africa and other parts of the world have brought with them;
probably the best example of this is the Brazilian carnival.
As home to the Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, South America is a great hiking and trekking destination. The Andes are magnificent and breathtakingly beautiful, and their terrain varies from snow-capped peaks to barren passes to lush forests. Peru is probably the most famous trekking destination, including the famous Inca Trail and many lesser known but equally rewarding treks. Bolivia also has many popular peaks climbable by inexperienced climbers on tours and many unfamiliar but equally beautiful 1 to 12 day hikes through the mountains and into the rainforest. Argentina and Chile, with its long Andean border, also offer a wide variety of excursions. In fact, almost every country on the continent has beautiful mountains with great ranges, with the exception of the lowlands of Paraguay, Suriname and Uruguay.
South American cuisine is as diverse and colorful as its people. The
continent's diverse soil range allows for a wide selection of food
items.
After the "discovery" of America, European settlers,
African slaves, and immigrants from other parts of the world brought
their food traditions with them, adapting them to include local
ingredients and cooking techniques. They have also introduced a new set
of meats, crops and spices into the culinary mix. The result is a very
interesting mix of flavours. World-famous dishes include feijoada,
ceviche, empanadas and, of course, Argentinean-grilled steaks. Widely
used ingredients include corn, potatoes, chili, and lima beans.
Less known in the rest of the world but widely used by the natives of
South America are cereals such as quinoa and kiwicha, queso fresco (a
fresh cow's milk cheese) and yuca (also known as cassava). For a taste
of traditional Andean meats, try alpaca or guinea pig. Finally, enjoy
one of the many sweet desserts, often paired with delicious tropical
fruits that grow here.
Drinks
South America offers a wide
variety of drinks, some of which can only be legally consumed in their
country of origin (that would be coca tea, made from the leaf of the
coca plant, presumably a good way to combat the problems l altitude
involves). Other beverages include yerba mate, a hot tea-like brew, and
Inca Cola, an alternative to the iconic American brand of soft drinks.
Keep in mind that coca leaves and other products are illegal in some
countries in South America, including Brazil and Paraguay, and the vast
majority of countries outside of South America. So be sure to eliminate
all traces of tea or coca leaves before crossing international borders
or otherwise leaving the few countries where coca is legal.
The accommodation types available are the same as in North America and Europe. For backpackers the best option is the hostel or camping. However, hotel rooms (like most other non-imported goods and services) are, with few exceptions, quite affordable compared to North America and Western Europe. Parasites are a risk if you sleep outdoors, especially in tropical parts of the continent.
South America has quite a reputation for crime, including armed
robbery, with Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela considered the most
dangerous. Read up on the individual destinations you intend to visit in
advance. Like anywhere else in the world, proper travel planning can
mitigate any dangers.
Wearing or carrying items that might
identify you as an affluent tourist can be a mistake. You shouldn't pack
anything whose loss was irreparable. Leave expensive jewellery, watches
and other valuables at home and take only what you need with you. This
also applies to credit cards and other documents; if you don't need
them, leave them in the hotel safe, just take the money you're likely to
spend with you.
While tropical storms are rare, flash floods do
occur in various parts of South America. Earthquakes and to some extent
volcanic eruptions are a risk in the Andean countries, especially in
Chile.
Tap water in many countries is not drinkable; it is wise to purify
your own or buy bottled water. Countries with safe tap water are
Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. In Colombia, the tap water is drinkable in
Bogotá, but drinking the tap water is not recommended in the drier
regions of the country.
Malaria, dengue and yellow fever can also
be a risk on the continent, so check with a travel clinic or your doctor
before heading out to see if you'll be in a high-risk area and get any
necessary vaccinations and medications.
The Andean countries
include areas of high altitude, making altitude sickness a risk. This is
particularly a problem in several popular destinations in Peru and
Bolivia.
The South American subcontinent can be divided into three major
areas:
The Andes as high mountains on the western side of the
continent
Three river plains east of the Andes
Three mountainous
countries east of the Andes
The Andes, the longest overseas
mountain range on earth, is located on the west coast. The high
mountains stretch along the Pacific over 7500 km from Venezuela to the
southern tip of Patagonia. The highest mountain in the Andes, at the
same time the highest mountain in South America and the highest mountain
outside of Asia, is Aconcagua at 6961 m. It is on the border between
Argentina and Chile. The Laguna del Carbón, the lowest point in South
America at 105 meters below sea level, is located in the San Julian
Basin in Patagonia.[2] Cape Horn on the Isla Hornos is usually referred
to as the southernmost point in South America, while Cape Froward on the
Strait of Magellan is the southernmost mainland point. Both points
belong to Chile.
The Amazon Basin (Amazonia), an equatorial
lowland rainforest drained by the Amazon with its approximately 10,000
tributaries, forms the largest river plain. The Amazon, which flows
eastwards from the Andes across the entire continent, is the longest
river in South America at around 6448 km and the most water-rich river
on earth. To the north lies the Orinoco plain, which is bordered towards
the Amazon basin to the south by the highlands of Guiana and to the
north by the Venezuelan coastal highlands. Another river level is in the
south of the continent, where the river system of Río Paraguay and Río
Paraná coming from the Pantanal in the north merges into a subtropical
alluvial landscape in the south.
The highlands are the Guiana
Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands, and the Eastern Patagonian
Highlands. The Highlands of Guiana is divided into the Rainforest
Highlands of southern Venezuela, the Central Highlands of Guiana and the
Eastern Highlands of Guiana, stretching between the Orinoco and Amazon
river plains with a maximum elevation of up to 2800 m. The Central
Brazilian Highlands dominate Central South America and attracts to the
coast of Brazil and the pampas of Argentina in the south. The Eastern
Patagonian Mountains rise in the eastern Andes at the southern tip of
South America.
For details, see Physical Geography of South
America
The Pacific side of South America is characterized by an active
continental margin in the form of a subduction zone, the Atlantic
continental side is plate tectonically passive. The eastern highlands of
South America have a large Precambrian base that may be overlain by
sandstones. The basin structures of the stream plains are dominated by
Tertiary and Quaternary sediments. To the south, the Patagonian Platform
forms the foundation of the Patagonian Highlands. The Andean orogen
consists largely of volcanic-sedimentary nappe layers, post-Precambrian
sedimentary basins, and middle and early Precambrian basements.
(according to ZEIL 1986) Due to their location on the active continental
margin, the Andean regions are characterized by volcanism and
earthquakes.
South America was once part of the supercontinent
Gondwana. Evidence of this is the exact fit to Africa, significant
basalt deposits formed by fracturing on what is now the east coast, the
streak directions of sandstones, and signs of Permian-Carboniferous
glaciation. Southern South America is characterized by glacial series of
Quaternary glaciations. Geomorphological features are glacial lakes,
moraines and glacial runoff patterns.
South America has deposits
of raw materials and minerals that are important for the global economy;
ores, saltpeter, crude oil, coal and gold are mined.
The climate of South America is extremely complex. Year-round
climatic influences are the cold Humboldt Current on the west coast of
Peru, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the formation of
tropical cyclones at the edge of the subtropical high pressure area and
the trade winds. The cold Humboldt Sea Current cools the sea surface off
the coast of Peru and northern Chile, leading to the formation of
coastal deserts. This phenomenon is based on the fact that the cooled
air leads to a constant inversion, and thus to a stable high pressure
area that does not allow convection and therefore no precipitation. The
effects are extensive desert regions on the coasts. The equatorial
tropical location causes an inner-tropical convection zone to form over
the central Amazon region in southern winter and leads to heavy
precipitation. In summer it shifts further south, so the inner tropics
are characterized by year-round precipitation. Also in summer, a
continental heat low forms, which is very rainy. The southern peripheral
tropics are thus characterized by (southern) summer precipitation. The
northern marginal tropics are characterized by trade wind jams in the
east (high precipitation all year round) and by cool sea water on the
coast in the north (very little precipitation).
The southern
trade winds on the east coast lead to increased precipitation in the
coastal regions, characterized in the southern summer by the formation
of monsoonal easterly winds and in the southern winter by stagnant
precipitation in the coastal regions. The stable high-pressure system on
the western edge of South America in combination with the cold air
masses of the southern polar regions leads to the formation of
extratropical cyclones off the coast of western Patagonia. The cyclonic
fronts vary in location in southern summer and southern winter. The
northward shift in southern winter leads to periodic winter
precipitation in Greater Southern Chile (jungle Chile) and sporadic
winter precipitation in Lesser Southern Chile. In turn, the shifting of
the cyclonic fronts in southern summer (influenced by the changed
position of the ITCZ) leads to a pronounced summer drought in all of
southern Chile, with the exception of Patagonia. On the windward side of
the Andes of the Patagonian mountains, the cyclonic fronts form heavy
accumulation precipitation, which can be described as hypermaritime.
This stagnant rainfall on the western side causes the Andean leeward
side of Patagonia to be characterized by aridity.
The Andes
themselves have a further climatic division in the vertical dimension.
In general, five altitude levels can be distinguished: The Tierra
Caliente (warm earth, up to 1000 m), the Tierra Templada (moderate
earth, up to 2000 m), the Tierra Fria (cold earth, up to 3500 m,
cultivation limit and frost limit), the Tierra Helada (Icy soil, up to
4500 m, snow line) and the Tierra Glacial (glacial soil, up to 6000 m,
anecumene).
There are also glaciations in the Andes. The largest
inner-tropical glaciations in the world can be found in Peru. Patagonia
has extensive inland glaciation and tongue glaciers that reach down to
sea level.
El Niño is a climate phenomenon that is significant
for the West Coast of South America, because although it originates from
a purely oceanic phenomenon, it is mainly its climatic consequences that
are perceived. The cold water currents off South America break off and
warm water collects off the South American coast. As a climatic
consequence, the normally prevailing stable high pressure situation is
canceled and the Walker circulation is reversed with serious effects due
to heavy precipitation.
Zoogeographically, South America belongs to the Neotropical Region,
which also includes Central America and the West Indies. The South
American continent was isolated from the other continents for most of
the Cenozoic period. At that time, unique forms of mammals developed,
some of which are still characteristic of South America today. These
include various marsupials, the armadillos, anteaters and sloths. The
New World monkeys and guinea pig relatives also arrived on the continent
very early (probably from Africa) as island hoppers. However, most of
today's mammalian fauna of the Neotropical Region consists of groups
that migrated from North America in the course of the great American
faunal exchange about 3 million years ago. At that time, even-toed
ungulates (deer, camels, peccaries), odd-toed ungulates (tapirs),
rabbits, predators (cats, dogs, martens, bears, small bears), shrews and
the rodent families of New World mice and squirrels migrated from North
America to South America. In addition, the trunked animals and horses
also came to South America at that time, but they disappeared again in
the course of the Quaternary wave of extinctions at the end of the
Pleistocene. Many other large animals disappeared with them, such as the
giant sloths, glyptodonts, toxodonts, macrauchenia and the saber-toothed
cat Smilodon. While South America was a continent of giants up to 12,000
years ago, today the Central American tapir is the largest land mammal
on the continent, although it is only found in Colombia. Jaguars and
spectacled bears are the largest land predators. The numerous
hummingbirds are known from the bird world.
The Amazon basin is
characterized by its rich flora, but there are also natural
monocultures, the so-called devil's gardens, in which mainly blush
plants can be found. Scientists have calculated that there are about
16,000 tree species in Amazonia, with half of all individual trees in
the region belonging to just 227 species. Brazil is the most biodiverse
country on earth. So far, around 55,000 species of flowering plants,
over 3,000 freshwater fish, 921 amphibian, 749 reptile and 51 primate
species have been discovered. At the beginning of the 20th century, the
teak tree was introduced - mainly in Argentina and Ecuador - and
cultivated in plantations, at the expense of and crowding out the
natural vegetation. More than 90% of the Atlantic coastal rainforest has
already been destroyed, which is partly due to agriculture.
Before the Conquista
According to the prevailing opinion on the
settlement of America, the northern continent was settled around 15,000
BC. by Asian tribes across the Bering Strait. In South America, the
first human traces appear between 20,000 and 10,000 BC. on. The oldest
American culture is the Valdivia culture in Ecuador in the 4th
millennium BC. From the 2nd millennium B.C. BC, individual local
cultures developed throughout South America. The earliest advanced
civilization still recognizable today was that of the Chavín de Huántar,
who lived around 800 BC. to 300 BC existed. There were also the
Tiahuanaco, Paracas, Nazca, Moche, Chimú and Chachapoya cultures, among
others.
From around 1200 to 1532, the Incas, probably the
best-known advanced civilization in South America, ruled over large
parts of the continent and created a huge empire with its center in what
is now Peru. The arrival of the Spanish conquerors shattered the Inca
Empire.
conquest
As early as 1494, Pope Alexander VI declared
South America in the Treaty of Tordesillas. shared between Spain and
Portugal. The eastern part, today's Brazil, was given to Portugal.
Panama and the rest of the continent fell to Spain. Numerous Spanish and
Portuguese missionaries came to South America in the 15th and 16th
centuries and introduced Christianity. For this reason, around 80 to 90%
of South Americans still profess Catholic Christianity today.
In
1543 the viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico and Venezuela) and Peru
(Spanish part of South America with Panama, excluding Venezuela) were
founded.
In 1717 Ecuador and Colombia separated from the
Viceroyalty of Peru and formed the Viceroyalty of New Granada with
Venezuela. Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and Paraguay followed suit in 1776
and created the new Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata.
independence
Since then, the urge for independence has steadily increased. In 1813,
rebels led by Simón Bolívar were victorious in Caracas for the first
time.
In the south, Argentina won independence in 1816. Chile
gained independence in 1817/1818. In 1819, Simón Bolívar's army defeated
the Spanish at the Battle of Boyacá, thereby liberating Colombia.
Ecuador's independence was won in 1822 at the Battle of Pichincha. The
armies of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar united and won the
decisive battle near Ayacucho in Peru on December 9, 1824. With this
battle, the Spaniards finally withdrew from South America as a political
power. In Brazil, the independence movement took a slightly different
course. Since the Portuguese royal family and their courtiers fled to
Brazil in 1808, fleeing from Napoleon and the actual capital of the
Portuguese empire was thus relocated from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil was practically equal to Portugal from that year and officially
from 1815. Independence was finally proclaimed in 1822 by the Portuguese
heir to the throne, Pedro, and Brazil became a monarchy.
After
gaining independence from Spain, Greater Colombia was formed, consisting
of the states of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. Briefly, Peru and
Bolivia joined the alliance. But as early as 1832 the confederation
finally disintegrated and today's nation states were formed.
On January 1, 2010, about 390 million people lived in South America. The population of South America is characterized by a mixture of the peoples who were native there as indigenous inhabitants and the ethnic groups who later settled here. The latter were mostly European immigrants or slaves who had been brought here from Africa. Thus, the proportion of Mestizo, Mulatto and Zambos predominates. In Brazil, Afro-Latin Americans make up a larger proportion of the population, descended from slaves who were abducted from Africa. Remnants of the original population live almost exclusively in the Andean highlands and in the Amazon region. Only in a few countries do the indigenous peoples make up a significant proportion of the population, such as in Ecuador, Perú and Bolivia.
Since South America was divided between Spain and Portugal in the
Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portuguese in its Brazilian variant is
spoken in Brazil today, while Spanish is the national language in almost
all other South American countries. Only in Suriname and on the islands
of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao is Dutch spoken as the official language.
In addition to Dutch, Sranantongo is also spoken as a lingua franca in
Suriname. English is spoken in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, and
French is spoken in French Guiana, which is not an independent country
but a French overseas department.
Other European languages spoken
in South America are English (partly in Argentina), German (in southern
Brazil and Chile, in Argentina, Paraguay and in German-speaking places
in Venezuela) and Low German Plautdietsch, Italian (in Brazil,
Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela) and Welsh (in southern Argentina).
In Bolivia, indigenous languages are spoken by more than half of the
population, sometimes alongside Spanish. Quechua and Aymara are by far
the most widely spoken, followed by Guarani, spoken in the eastern
lowlands. Since 2009, all indigenous languages of Bolivia have been
recognized by the constitution as official languages alongside Spanish.
In Peru, Quechua and Aymara are regionally recognized official languages
alongside Spanish. Kichwa (or Quichua), which is related to Quechua and
is widespread in the highlands of Ecuador, is not an official language
there, but is recognized by the constitution. Guarani is one of the
official languages of Paraguay, along with Spanish, where it is used by
a bilingual majority. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages
spoken in the country as official languages, but fewer than one percent
are native speakers. The most spoken indigenous language in Chile is
Mapudungun ("Araucanian") of the Mapuche in southern Chile, along with
Aymara in northern Chile and Rapanui on Easter Island.
The vast majority of the population professes the Roman Catholic faith. Liberation theology developed here in particular from about 1960, but it was supported by Pope John Paul II and the then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and later Pope Benedict XVI. was fought. The proportion of Catholics has steadily decreased (as of 2007); Free churches and special religious communities grew (as of 2007). Pope Francis, in office since 2013, is Argentinian.
Until the late 19th century, African slaves were mainly used on the
export-oriented plantations in the Caribbean Basin, on the Pacific coast
and in Brazil. Slavery was not abolished in Brazil until 1888, later
than in almost all other countries.
Typical haciendas in the
highlands secured the dependence of the indigenous people in that the
farm workers were allotted a small plot of land and had to perform labor
in return for the patrón. The systematic keeping of dependents in the
socially relatively closed hacienda system lasted well into the 20th
century.
Mining played an important role in many pre-colonial cultures in
South America. One of the main reasons for the conquista was the
subjugation of Indian gold and silver empires, with the Eldorado legend
playing a role that should not be underestimated.
The South
American Andes are particularly rich in metallic mineral resources. Some
of the world's largest deposits of copper, tin, gold and silver are
found in the central Andean belt. The most important copper ore
producing country in 2006 was by far Chile and among the five largest
tin producing countries three (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil) are in South
America. The largest deposits of lithium salts, some of which are not
yet mined, are found in the salt lakes, particularly in Chile (e.g.
Salar de Atacama) and Bolivia (e.g. Salar de Uyuni).
The deposits
of fossil fuels are also significant. The countries in the Orinoco Delta
in the northwest of the continent have a large share of the oil
reserves: Venezuela is already one of the world's largest producing
countries and in Brazil a deposit was discovered in 2007 that is
considered to be one of the largest oil reserves in the world.
Accordingly, the export of mineral resources is the most important
source of foreign exchange for the countries of South America. The
development and exploitation of the deposits always leads to territorial
and cultural conflicts between the interests of the companies and the
indigenous population. Massive environmental problems can be observed in
particular with oil production: deforestation, road construction, soil
and water contamination lead to a destruction of the ecological balance,
especially in the Amazon lowlands, where many indigenous population
groups still live in a sensitive ecosystem close to nature.
The agricultural structures were shaped by colonial influences up
until the 20th century. To this day, land ownership is either held in
huge estates by the large landowners or by subsistence smallholders.
In the course of the Spanish conquest, the system of encomienda
(Spanish for "order") was first created. The goal was a profitable
agricultural colonial system without the development of an autonomous
hereditary nobility. To this end, the Spanish conquistadors received
extensive land holdings in trust. The Spanish king remained the feudal
lord, who entrusted the encomendero (“contractor”) with the task of
cultivating the land and ensuring the protection and proselytizing of
the indigenous population living there. In its practical implementation,
however, this foreign administration is regarded as a particularly
inhuman form of slavery, because the indigenous population represented
no financial value for the landowners and was often carelessly worked to
death.
Although the institution of the encomienda formally
existed until 1791, it was successively replaced by the repartimiento
(in English "allotment") from 1549 onwards. In the repartimiento system,
Native American communities were obliged to provide the state with
workers from their ranks.
After independence, the "fiduciary"
estates were converted into private ownership, and although the farms
called hacienda (Spanish) or fazenda (Portuguese) were significantly
smaller, they often covered tens of thousands of hectares of land. The
term latifundia is still used today for these large estates.
In
many South American countries there are now efforts to distribute
property more fairly through land reforms. So far, however, these have
only been implemented with some degree of effectiveness in Venezuela and
Peru. The reform carried out by the Sandinistas in Nicaragua has
meanwhile been largely reversed. In Brazil, the Movimento dos
Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra is fighting for extensive land reform.
To date (as of 2016), a network of international organizations has
formed, some with changing memberships:
Around Peru, the Andean
Community was founded in 1969 as an international organization (Spanish
Comunidad Andina de Naciones, abbreviation: CAN) for economic, political
and social integration.
Around Argentina, the Mercado Común del Sur
(short: Mercosur; Spanish: Common Market of the South) was created in
1991, in which the relatively heavily industrialized southern countries
are striving to establish a domestic market.
Around Hugo Chávez's
Venezuela, the Bolivarian Alliance for America, or ALBA for short, was
initiated by countries with left-leaning governments. This organization
initially had a lot of influence on the emancipation process of the
states of South America, but is currently clearly the weakest of the
organizations, at least in terms of economic importance.
The Amazon
Pact, today OCTA (Portuguese: Organização do Tratado de Cooperação
Amazônica), was brought into being around Brazil in 1978 with today's
goal of sustainable development in Amazonia.
A more political than
economic project is the Union of South American Nations, UNASUR for
short, founded in 2004, which wants to promote continental integration
along the lines of the European Union. The focus is on the fight against
"inequality, social exclusion, hunger, poverty and insecurity". The
initiative came from the two large organizations Mercosur and CAN, but
Chile, Venezuela and the other countries in South America that are not
full members there also joined.
Bolivia, as a geographically central
country with a significant share in both the Amazon and the Andes
region, is the only country that is a full member in all organizations.
Due to the concentration of population on the coasts of South
America, the most important transport connections also run here. The
lack of efficient land-based direct connections between the countries of
South America is problematic, since the interior of the continent is
only poorly developed. In particular, there is a lack of efficient
connections across the Andes and the Amazon with its tributaries.
air traffic
Air traffic is important both for traffic within the
countries of South America and between the countries. Especially in
large countries like Brazil, this is often the only connection between
remote parts of the country. It is also often the only connection
between the states of South America.
ship traffic
Shipping is
of essential transport importance in South America, both in the area of
the coasts and on some rivers such as the Amazon, the Rio de la Plata,
the Orinoco and its tributaries as well as on inland lakes. Major ports
are in Buenos Aires and Rosario in Argentina, Montevideo in Uruguay,
Belém, Fortaleza, Ilhéus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranaguá, Porto Alegre,
Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos and Vitória in
Brazil, Cayenne in French Guiana, Paramaribo in Suriname, Georgetown in
Guyana, La Guaira and Puerto Cabello in Venezuela, Barranquilla,
Buenaventura and Cartagena in Colombia, Machala in Ecuador, Lima in Peru
and Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, Chañaral, Coquimbo, Valparaíso, San
Antonio, Talcahuano, Puerto Montt and Punta Arenas in Chile. Until the
opening of the Panama Canal, the most frequently used connection from
the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean was the dangerous circumnavigation of
Cape Horn at the southern tip of the continent. The Strait of Magellan
provides Chile with direct access to the Atlantic, which was significant
as the country's economy has long been oriented towards Europe.
road and long-distance bus network
There is no connected road
network. For example, the northern Brazilian city of Manaus is not
connected to the rest of the road network. In order to improve the
situation, road construction projects are currently being planned or
under construction to open up the interior of South America and thus
create direct connections between the Atlantic and Pacific states, such
as the Transoceánica and the Transamazônica. The continent is crossed
from north to south by the Panamericana. Most countries drive on the
right, while Guyana and Suriname drive on the left.
Despite the
sometimes poor road connections and long distances, long-distance bus
transport is very important in most South American countries, as tickets
are usually much cheaper than plane tickets. Overnight trips are common
in many places and often last longer than 12 hours. Some international
lines are also offered, but the vehicle usually has to be changed at the
border. In addition to large buses, overland trips are also often
offered with minibuses and scheduled taxis.
Rail transport
There is no continuous rail network. A dense rail network exists in
particular in the metropolitan areas on the coasts, for example in the
Rio de Janeiro area, São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Caracas or in the Santiago
de Chile area. Connections exist between the rail networks of Brazil,
Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. The railway networks of
Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela and Guyana, on the other hand, are
isolated. There is currently no rail transport in Suriname and French
Guiana. The rail networks in the hinterland of Brazil, Argentina and
Chile have been severely thinned out in recent decades. Paraguay only
has one cross-border connection to Argentina without any other domestic
connections. The very different common track gauges of 600 mm, 760 mm,
1000 mm, 1435 mm, 1600 mm and 1676 mm are problematic, as they prevent
the standardization of rail traffic in South America. Rail transport is
only of secondary importance for passenger transport, often in suburban
traffic. Freight transport is more important here. In some large cities,
cable cars play an important role in local public transport.
Pipelines
Construction projects for pipelines are also being planned.
This includes, for example, the Bolivia-Argentina route of the planned
southern gas pipeline. In Brazil there are about 5000 km of oil
pipelines. In addition, there are natural gas pipelines of about 4250
km.
The countries of South America are divided geopolitically as follows:
Andean countries: Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile. These
countries share specific ethnic, linguistic, and cultural similarities,
such as the use of Quechua and adobe construction. As a result of the
history of the Inca Empire, which extended in this region between about
800 and 1500, the term "Andean countries" is still used today as a term
for the common cultural area.
Amazon Basin States (Amazonia):
includes areas in the states of Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana,
Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Due to its size, Brazil
is often seen as an independent entity.
La Plata States: narrowly
defined Argentina and Uruguay. What both countries have in common is
their direct location on the Río de la Plata, the 290 km long and up to
220 km wide estuary of the great South American rivers Paraná and
Uruguay. Paraguay and Bolivia also have a share in this catchment area
via the Río Paraguay and its tributaries.
Cono Sur (dt. southern
cone): Argentina, Chile and Uruguay, also to a certain extent Paraguay.
Caribbean countries: Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana.
These countries are often included in the Caribbean because of their
colonial history and their economic and transport links to the Caribbean
islands.
Trinidad and Tobago are traditionally counted among the
Caribbean islands and thus part of Central America. However, the main
island of Trinidad lies on the South American continental shelf and is
also culturally influenced by neighboring Venezuela.
Aruba, Bonaire
and Curaçao (ABC Islands) are part of the Leeward Islands, an
archipelago off the coast of Venezuela that is traditionally considered
part of the Lesser Antilles and is therefore also often counted as part
of Central America.
The Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) is the union of the
twelve South American states founded in 2008. In the founding document,
the aim of the Union is defined as the fight against "inequality, social
exclusion, hunger, poverty and insecurity". By 2025, integration
comparable to that of the European Union is to be achieved with a common
currency, a South American parliament and uniform passports. With French
Guiana, an overseas department of France, the European Union itself
extends to South America and has an external border with Suriname and
Brazil.
Despite all the progress, it is currently (as of 2016)
questionable whether the goals can be achieved as early as 2025. The
various economic and political alliances sometimes pursue different
goals, especially when it comes to free trade and cooperation with the
USA and other world powers. There is also often a lack of willingness on
the part of their members to cede extensive powers to the supranational
alliances. The weakness of the leading countries Brazil, Argentina and
Venezuela, which has existed for several years, is also a major obstacle
to further steps towards integration.
In the course of the
emancipation movements, the Community of Latin American and Caribbean
States (CELAC for short) is also becoming increasingly important for the
countries of South America, while the Organization of American States,
which is dominated by the USA, or even the Ibero-American Summit, which
is dominated by Spain, are increasingly taking a back seat.