South America

Located between the Caribbean Sea, the South Pacific and the South Atlantic, South America is the wildest part of the new continent.

South America occupies a large part of the geographical region called the "New World", America is sometimes considered as a single continent and South America as a subcontinent. It is home to many unique animal species, including llamas, anacondas, piranhas, jaguars, vicunas and tapirs. The forests of the Amazon, however, have a high level of biodiversity.

 

Geographic hints

Its territory extends southeast of the border between Panama and Colombia, according to most sources. Others place the border along the Panama Canal. Geopolitically, the entire State of Panama (including the segment east of the Panama Canal) is generally considered part of North America or Central America.

On this continent are the highest waterfalls in the world, the Salto Angel in Venezuela, and the largest river in terms of water flow, the Amazon River, and the longest mountain range, the Andes (whose highest peak highest is Aconcagua with 6 962 m above sea level), the driest desert, the Atacama Desert, the largest rainforest, the Amazon, the highest capital, La Paz in Bolivia, the highest commercial lake navigable, Lake Titicaca, and the southernmost city in the world, the city of Porto Toro in Chile.

 

When to go

South America is home to a wide variety of climates: the hot humid climate of the Amazon rainforest, the cold dry climate of Patagonia, the arid climate of the Atacama Desert, the icy windy climate of Tierra del Fuego.

In the western region, between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, there are some of the wettest and driest areas on the planet: the Choco (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Panama) and the Atacama Desert (Chile, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina respectively) the climate is generally tropical: equatorial in the Amazon region, humid in the savannah, steppe in the pampas, nival in the Andes.

Background
Some archaeological finds lead us to suppose a population prior to the arrival of the first men across the Bering Strait, as the abundant presence of archaeological sites in South America and the low number of these in the north of the continent would indicate. The first evidence of agricultural practices in South America dates back to around 6500 BC. The first to arrive in South America was probably Amerigo Vespucci, whose first journey is dated 1497. Colonization and had a great boost when it became known that there was an empire rich in gold to the south. It was the empire of the Incas, and was joined by Francisco Pizarro in 1527 and conquered in the following years by the Spaniards. From the 16th century until the early 19th century, therefore, most of South America was divided into colonies governed mostly by Spain and Portugal. Later with independence these colonies became republics, with the exception of French Guiana and the Falkland Islands (and the closest islands occupied by the United Kingdom), currently the only non-independent territories.

Spoken languages
The five colonial languages of South America are Portuguese 52%, Spanish, English, Dutch and French >1%.

But there are also non-European languages spoken such as the Guarani language, spoken mainly in Paraguay.

 

Top Destinations in South America

Aconcagua Provincial Park

Aconcagua Provincial Park takes its name from quechua word of “Ackon-Cauak”, which roughtly is translated as ‘Stone Sentinel’. Splendid Andes Mountain Range draws all types of thrill seekers ranging in difficulty including hiking, climbing, skiing and etc.

Machu Picchu

Machu Picchu is an ancient archeological Inca site 69 mi Northwest of Cusco in Peru. Peruvian government secured 326 sq km as a "Historical Sanctuary" to preserve Machu Picchu archaeological site. In 1983 Machu Picchu was added to a UNESCO World Heritage Site and in 2007 it was chosen as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World.

The Inca Trail

The Inca Trail to a great Incan settlement of Machu Picchu is one of the greatest hikes you will ever undertake. It lies in a beautiful Andean mountain range and connects numerous ancient archaeological settlements along its way.

Nazca Lines

Nazca Lines are located 12 mi (20 km) North of Nazca in Peru. These lines were created between 500 BC and 500 AD these spectacular creations went largely unnoticed until 1927 than the pilot saw shapes of animals, trees and various geometric figures.

 

Regions

Caribbean Coast

Colombia Guyana Suriname Venezuela French Guiana
Colombia and Venezuela stand out for their mix of Andean culture, Amazon rainforest and a prodigious coastline of paradisiacal beaches. Cartagena de Indias and Isla de Margarita are just some of the destinations that receive thousands of tourists each year who come to enjoy the favorable climate, temperate waters and vegetation of the area. Urban areas such as Bogotá , Medellín , Cali and Caracas stand out when mixing their Hispanic origins with modernity.

The Guyanas, meanwhile, are more exotic destinations. The recent colonial past of Guyana and Surinam contrasts with the jungle that covers their lands.

 

Andes

Bolivia Ecuador Peru Colombia
In the heart of South America, the Andes are enchanted by ancient ancient cultures and the preserved baroque cities of colonial origin, such as Lima and Quito . The pre-Columbian traditions have managed to maintain and integrate with the current civilization, offering tourists their particular magic in destinations such as Cusco or Machu Picchu . Contrasting landscapes between jungle and desert can be found next to beautiful and deserted beaches on the Pacific coasts. The Titicaca , the highest navigable lake in the world, and the native fauna of the Galapagos Islands are some of the highlights of this area.

Brazil
The largest country in Latin America and probably the most recognized worldwide, highlighting the Carnival , and the famous beaches of Rio de Janeiro , the giant " Amazon " or the rich and cosmopolitan São Paulo , the largest city in the southern hemisphere. However, Brazil is more than that, with a territory that stretches from the Atlantic to almost touching the Andes, incorporating places such as the Pantanal , one of the largest wetlands in the world, the paradisiacal Parque Nacional dos Lençois or the islands of Fernando de Noronha .
Its rich history that mixes indigenous cultures, Portuguese colonialism and the traditions of former African slaves, has allowed the emergence of attractive cities such as Salvador de Bahia or the futuristic capital, Brasilia.

 

Southern Cone

Argentina Chile Paraguay Uruguay
The southernmost part of the continent is full of diversity on both sides of the Andes mountain range. In the Pacific, the arid lands of Atacama contrast with the fjords and glaciers that fall into the sea in Patagonia , while the Pampas and their mountains extend from the Andes to the Atlantic. The lakes and forests cover great extensions in the cordilleranos faldeos and the coasts are populated with penguins and whales.

With one of the highest living standards in the continent, you can also find a vibrant urban life in its main cities. Buenos Aires is an icon of western culture, although Valparaíso , Santiago or Montevideo are not left behind.

 

South Atlantic Islands

Falkland Islands · South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
One of the most disputed territories in the world, the South Atlantic islands are ancient remnants of the British Empire. Reclaimed to date by Argentina, these islands are remote destinations outside of traditional circuits. Its harsh climate and geography frame the rugged landscapes and rich biodiversity.

 

Urban centers

Bogotá — a city of contrasts with a frenetic balance between the new and the old; the most cultural of the South American capitals
Buenos Aires — the city of tango and the most cosmopolitan of Argentina
Caracas — filled with theaters, shopping malls, museums, art galleries, parks, and well-preserved colonial architecture
La Paz — built into a canyon, the highest national capital in the world
Lima — the sprawling coastal capital of Peru is a major gastronomic hub
Montevideo - the pleasant capital of Uruguay, located on the eastern bank of the Rio de la Plata
Rio de Janeiro — famous for its breathtaking scenery, beaches and annual carnival
Santiago de Chile - Capital of Chile with many museums, events, theaters, restaurants and bars
São Paulo — a hive of activity offering a vibrant nightlife and a diverse cultural experience

 

Other destinations

Andes — the longest mountain range in the world and the highest outside Asia
Canaima National Park — its main attraction is Angel Falls, at 978 m, the highest waterfall on Earth
Easter Island — an isolated Polynesian island famous for its mysterious history and giant stone statues
Galapagos Islands — islands with unique fauna: this is where Darwin collected evidence of natural selection
Iguazu Falls — breathtaking waterfalls on the border of Argentina and Brazil
Machu Picchu — high in the mountains, the lost city of the Incas is a spectacular set of ruins
Pantanal - large wetlands with abundant wildlife
Salar de Uyuni — Bolivia's seemingly endless salt flats
Tierra del Fuego — islands at the tip of South America, with rugged landscapes, boating, and winter activities

 

What to see

A considerable number of the greatest natural wonders are found in South America. Perhaps the first thing you'll notice when looking at a map of the continent is the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon, which covers much of Brazil. It also features the largest wetlands in the world, Pantanal, Angel Falls, the world's tallest waterfall and the best-known Iguazu Falls. Other notable bodies of water include the Amazon River (by some measures the world's longest river and the one with the largest drainage basin), the world's highest commercially navigable body of water, Lake Titicaca, and the wide Rio de la Plata (between Uruguay and Argentina) which is more like a bay in the Atlantic Ocean.

To the west is the "backbone" of the continent - the Andes. This mountain range, which is the longest in the world, contains Aconcagua which with a height of nearly 7,000m is the tallest mountain outside Asia. Because the Earth is thickest at the equator, Chimborazo Peak (6,268m) is the furthest point in the world from the center of the Earth. Right next to these towering mountains is the Atacama Desert, the driest and perhaps the oldest in the world. The white spot that can be seen from satellite footage is the Salar de Uyuni. Situated 3,656m above sea level, it is – you guessed it – the largest salt flat in the world.

The Galapagos Islands, 1,000 km off the coast, have a unique fauna. There are also several iconic and unique animals on land, including llamas and other camelids, jaguars, capybaras, opossums, and monkeys, as well as less pleasant, poisonous, or tropical disease-spreading creatures. Another equally famous Pacific island is Easter Island.

While most people would think of South America as a rainforest or desert, this is mostly but not entirely true: Los Glaciares National Park in southwest Argentina will prove otherwise. Overall, the climate and landscape of the far south is actually reminiscent of Norway or parts of Canada. Here you can find Ushuaia, the southernmost city in the world and a gateway to Antarctica. South America also holds the record of La Paz as the highest national capital in the world, and in Chacaltaya you will find the highest ski resort in the world.

It is certainly not only in modern times that people have lived and worked in the Andes even at altitudes where altitude sickness is likely to contract. Particularly in Peru and Bolivia, you will find many of the beautiful and famous archaeological sites connected by pre-Columbian Inca trails. Among these the most famous is undoubtedly Machu Picchu , but places such as Chan Chan and Tiwanaku are also deservedly inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Peru is also home to the Nazcalinee, built 1500 years ago for an unknown purpose and only visible from the air.

The European contribution to the local architecture includes mining towns in the mountains and many churches and missions and other colonial architecture along the coasts. Of course, in places like São Paulo, Buenos Aires and Santiago de Chile you can also see skyscrapers archetypal of any metropolis in the world. And let's not forget Rio de Janeiro with its world famous Copacabana and Ipanema beaches with the Sugar Loaf mountain, Pão de Açúcar, in the background.

South America offers a variety of cultural experiences. In the Andes, indigenous traditions and languages still live strong. The east and south of the continent are more of a blend of cultures that immigrants from Europe, Africa and other parts of the world have brought with them; probably the best example of this is the Brazilian carnival.

 

What to do

As home to the Andes, the longest mountain range in the world, South America is a great hiking and trekking destination. The Andes are magnificent and breathtakingly beautiful, and their terrain varies from snow-capped peaks to barren passes to lush forests. Peru is probably the most famous trekking destination, including the famous Inca Trail and many lesser known but equally rewarding treks. Bolivia also has many popular peaks climbable by inexperienced climbers on tours and many unfamiliar but equally beautiful 1 to 12 day hikes through the mountains and into the rainforest. Argentina and Chile, with its long Andean border, also offer a wide variety of excursions. In fact, almost every country on the continent has beautiful mountains with great ranges, with the exception of the lowlands of Paraguay, Suriname and Uruguay.

 

Eat

South American cuisine is as diverse and colorful as its people. The continent's diverse soil range allows for a wide selection of food items.

After the "discovery" of America, European settlers, African slaves, and immigrants from other parts of the world brought their food traditions with them, adapting them to include local ingredients and cooking techniques. They have also introduced a new set of meats, crops and spices into the culinary mix. The result is a very interesting mix of flavours. World-famous dishes include feijoada, ceviche, empanadas and, of course, Argentinean-grilled steaks. Widely used ingredients include corn, potatoes, chili, and lima beans.

Less known in the rest of the world but widely used by the natives of South America are cereals such as quinoa and kiwicha, queso fresco (a fresh cow's milk cheese) and yuca (also known as cassava). For a taste of traditional Andean meats, try alpaca or guinea pig. Finally, enjoy one of the many sweet desserts, often paired with delicious tropical fruits that grow here.

Drinks
South America offers a wide variety of drinks, some of which can only be legally consumed in their country of origin (that would be coca tea, made from the leaf of the coca plant, presumably a good way to combat the problems l altitude involves). Other beverages include yerba mate, a hot tea-like brew, and Inca Cola, an alternative to the iconic American brand of soft drinks.

Keep in mind that coca leaves and other products are illegal in some countries in South America, including Brazil and Paraguay, and the vast majority of countries outside of South America. So be sure to eliminate all traces of tea or coca leaves before crossing international borders or otherwise leaving the few countries where coca is legal.

 

Tourist infrastructure

The accommodation types available are the same as in North America and Europe. For backpackers the best option is the hostel or camping. However, hotel rooms (like most other non-imported goods and services) are, with few exceptions, quite affordable compared to North America and Western Europe. Parasites are a risk if you sleep outdoors, especially in tropical parts of the continent.

 

Safety

South America has quite a reputation for crime, including armed robbery, with Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela considered the most dangerous. Read up on the individual destinations you intend to visit in advance. Like anywhere else in the world, proper travel planning can mitigate any dangers.

Wearing or carrying items that might identify you as an affluent tourist can be a mistake. You shouldn't pack anything whose loss was irreparable. Leave expensive jewellery, watches and other valuables at home and take only what you need with you. This also applies to credit cards and other documents; if you don't need them, leave them in the hotel safe, just take the money you're likely to spend with you.

While tropical storms are rare, flash floods do occur in various parts of South America. Earthquakes and to some extent volcanic eruptions are a risk in the Andean countries, especially in Chile.

 

Health situation

Tap water in many countries is not drinkable; it is wise to purify your own or buy bottled water. Countries with safe tap water are Argentina, Chile and Uruguay. In Colombia, the tap water is drinkable in Bogotá, but drinking the tap water is not recommended in the drier regions of the country.

Malaria, dengue and yellow fever can also be a risk on the continent, so check with a travel clinic or your doctor before heading out to see if you'll be in a high-risk area and get any necessary vaccinations and medications.

The Andean countries include areas of high altitude, making altitude sickness a risk. This is particularly a problem in several popular destinations in Peru and Bolivia.

 

Geography

The South American subcontinent can be divided into three major areas:
The Andes as high mountains on the western side of the continent
Three river plains east of the Andes
Three mountainous countries east of the Andes

The Andes, the longest overseas mountain range on earth, is located on the west coast. The high mountains stretch along the Pacific over 7500 km from Venezuela to the southern tip of Patagonia. The highest mountain in the Andes, at the same time the highest mountain in South America and the highest mountain outside of Asia, is Aconcagua at 6961 m. It is on the border between Argentina and Chile. The Laguna del Carbón, the lowest point in South America at 105 meters below sea level, is located in the San Julian Basin in Patagonia.[2] Cape Horn on the Isla Hornos is usually referred to as the southernmost point in South America, while Cape Froward on the Strait of Magellan is the southernmost mainland point. Both points belong to Chile.

The Amazon Basin (Amazonia), an equatorial lowland rainforest drained by the Amazon with its approximately 10,000 tributaries, forms the largest river plain. The Amazon, which flows eastwards from the Andes across the entire continent, is the longest river in South America at around 6448 km and the most water-rich river on earth. To the north lies the Orinoco plain, which is bordered towards the Amazon basin to the south by the highlands of Guiana and to the north by the Venezuelan coastal highlands. Another river level is in the south of the continent, where the river system of Río Paraguay and Río Paraná coming from the Pantanal in the north merges into a subtropical alluvial landscape in the south.

The highlands are the Guiana Highlands, the Brazilian Highlands, and the Eastern Patagonian Highlands. The Highlands of Guiana is divided into the Rainforest Highlands of southern Venezuela, the Central Highlands of Guiana and the Eastern Highlands of Guiana, stretching between the Orinoco and Amazon river plains with a maximum elevation of up to 2800 m. The Central Brazilian Highlands dominate Central South America and attracts to the coast of Brazil and the pampas of Argentina in the south. The Eastern Patagonian Mountains rise in the eastern Andes at the southern tip of South America.

For details, see Physical Geography of South America

 

Geology and geomorphology

The Pacific side of South America is characterized by an active continental margin in the form of a subduction zone, the Atlantic continental side is plate tectonically passive. The eastern highlands of South America have a large Precambrian base that may be overlain by sandstones. The basin structures of the stream plains are dominated by Tertiary and Quaternary sediments. To the south, the Patagonian Platform forms the foundation of the Patagonian Highlands. The Andean orogen consists largely of volcanic-sedimentary nappe layers, post-Precambrian sedimentary basins, and middle and early Precambrian basements. (according to ZEIL 1986) Due to their location on the active continental margin, the Andean regions are characterized by volcanism and earthquakes.

South America was once part of the supercontinent Gondwana. Evidence of this is the exact fit to Africa, significant basalt deposits formed by fracturing on what is now the east coast, the streak directions of sandstones, and signs of Permian-Carboniferous glaciation. Southern South America is characterized by glacial series of Quaternary glaciations. Geomorphological features are glacial lakes, moraines and glacial runoff patterns.

South America has deposits of raw materials and minerals that are important for the global economy; ores, saltpeter, crude oil, coal and gold are mined.

 

Climate

The climate of South America is extremely complex. Year-round climatic influences are the cold Humboldt Current on the west coast of Peru, the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the formation of tropical cyclones at the edge of the subtropical high pressure area and the trade winds. The cold Humboldt Sea Current cools the sea surface off the coast of Peru and northern Chile, leading to the formation of coastal deserts. This phenomenon is based on the fact that the cooled air leads to a constant inversion, and thus to a stable high pressure area that does not allow convection and therefore no precipitation. The effects are extensive desert regions on the coasts. The equatorial tropical location causes an inner-tropical convection zone to form over the central Amazon region in southern winter and leads to heavy precipitation. In summer it shifts further south, so the inner tropics are characterized by year-round precipitation. Also in summer, a continental heat low forms, which is very rainy. The southern peripheral tropics are thus characterized by (southern) summer precipitation. The northern marginal tropics are characterized by trade wind jams in the east (high precipitation all year round) and by cool sea water on the coast in the north (very little precipitation).

The southern trade winds on the east coast lead to increased precipitation in the coastal regions, characterized in the southern summer by the formation of monsoonal easterly winds and in the southern winter by stagnant precipitation in the coastal regions. The stable high-pressure system on the western edge of South America in combination with the cold air masses of the southern polar regions leads to the formation of extratropical cyclones off the coast of western Patagonia. The cyclonic fronts vary in location in southern summer and southern winter. The northward shift in southern winter leads to periodic winter precipitation in Greater Southern Chile (jungle Chile) and sporadic winter precipitation in Lesser Southern Chile. In turn, the shifting of the cyclonic fronts in southern summer (influenced by the changed position of the ITCZ) leads to a pronounced summer drought in all of southern Chile, with the exception of Patagonia. On the windward side of the Andes of the Patagonian mountains, the cyclonic fronts form heavy accumulation precipitation, which can be described as hypermaritime. This stagnant rainfall on the western side causes the Andean leeward side of Patagonia to be characterized by aridity.

The Andes themselves have a further climatic division in the vertical dimension. In general, five altitude levels can be distinguished: The Tierra Caliente (warm earth, up to 1000 m), the Tierra Templada (moderate earth, up to 2000 m), the Tierra Fria (cold earth, up to 3500 m, cultivation limit and frost limit), the Tierra Helada (Icy soil, up to 4500 m, snow line) and the Tierra Glacial (glacial soil, up to 6000 m, anecumene).

There are also glaciations in the Andes. The largest inner-tropical glaciations in the world can be found in Peru. Patagonia has extensive inland glaciation and tongue glaciers that reach down to sea level.

El Niño is a climate phenomenon that is significant for the West Coast of South America, because although it originates from a purely oceanic phenomenon, it is mainly its climatic consequences that are perceived. The cold water currents off South America break off and warm water collects off the South American coast. As a climatic consequence, the normally prevailing stable high pressure situation is canceled and the Walker circulation is reversed with serious effects due to heavy precipitation.

 

Flora and fauna

Zoogeographically, South America belongs to the Neotropical Region, which also includes Central America and the West Indies. The South American continent was isolated from the other continents for most of the Cenozoic period. At that time, unique forms of mammals developed, some of which are still characteristic of South America today. These include various marsupials, the armadillos, anteaters and sloths. The New World monkeys and guinea pig relatives also arrived on the continent very early (probably from Africa) as island hoppers. However, most of today's mammalian fauna of the Neotropical Region consists of groups that migrated from North America in the course of the great American faunal exchange about 3 million years ago. At that time, even-toed ungulates (deer, camels, peccaries), odd-toed ungulates (tapirs), rabbits, predators (cats, dogs, martens, bears, small bears), shrews and the rodent families of New World mice and squirrels migrated from North America to South America. In addition, the trunked animals and horses also came to South America at that time, but they disappeared again in the course of the Quaternary wave of extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene. Many other large animals disappeared with them, such as the giant sloths, glyptodonts, toxodonts, macrauchenia and the saber-toothed cat Smilodon. While South America was a continent of giants up to 12,000 years ago, today the Central American tapir is the largest land mammal on the continent, although it is only found in Colombia. Jaguars and spectacled bears are the largest land predators. The numerous hummingbirds are known from the bird world.

The Amazon basin is characterized by its rich flora, but there are also natural monocultures, the so-called devil's gardens, in which mainly blush plants can be found. Scientists have calculated that there are about 16,000 tree species in Amazonia, with half of all individual trees in the region belonging to just 227 species. Brazil is the most biodiverse country on earth. So far, around 55,000 species of flowering plants, over 3,000 freshwater fish, 921 amphibian, 749 reptile and 51 primate species have been discovered. At the beginning of the 20th century, the teak tree was introduced - mainly in Argentina and Ecuador - and cultivated in plantations, at the expense of and crowding out the natural vegetation. More than 90% of the Atlantic coastal rainforest has already been destroyed, which is partly due to agriculture.

 

History

Before the Conquista
According to the prevailing opinion on the settlement of America, the northern continent was settled around 15,000 BC. by Asian tribes across the Bering Strait. In South America, the first human traces appear between 20,000 and 10,000 BC. on. The oldest American culture is the Valdivia culture in Ecuador in the 4th millennium BC. From the 2nd millennium B.C. BC, individual local cultures developed throughout South America. The earliest advanced civilization still recognizable today was that of the Chavín de Huántar, who lived around 800 BC. to 300 BC existed. There were also the Tiahuanaco, Paracas, Nazca, Moche, Chimú and Chachapoya cultures, among others.

From around 1200 to 1532, the Incas, probably the best-known advanced civilization in South America, ruled over large parts of the continent and created a huge empire with its center in what is now Peru. The arrival of the Spanish conquerors shattered the Inca Empire.

conquest
As early as 1494, Pope Alexander VI declared South America in the Treaty of Tordesillas. shared between Spain and Portugal. The eastern part, today's Brazil, was given to Portugal. Panama and the rest of the continent fell to Spain. Numerous Spanish and Portuguese missionaries came to South America in the 15th and 16th centuries and introduced Christianity. For this reason, around 80 to 90% of South Americans still profess Catholic Christianity today.

In 1543 the viceroyalty of New Spain (Mexico and Venezuela) and Peru (Spanish part of South America with Panama, excluding Venezuela) were founded.

In 1717 Ecuador and Colombia separated from the Viceroyalty of Peru and formed the Viceroyalty of New Granada with Venezuela. Bolivia, Chile, Argentina and Paraguay followed suit in 1776 and created the new Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata.

independence
Since then, the urge for independence has steadily increased. In 1813, rebels led by Simón Bolívar were victorious in Caracas for the first time.

In the south, Argentina won independence in 1816. Chile gained independence in 1817/1818. In 1819, Simón Bolívar's army defeated the Spanish at the Battle of Boyacá, thereby liberating Colombia. Ecuador's independence was won in 1822 at the Battle of Pichincha. The armies of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar united and won the decisive battle near Ayacucho in Peru on December 9, 1824. With this battle, the Spaniards finally withdrew from South America as a political power. In Brazil, the independence movement took a slightly different course. Since the Portuguese royal family and their courtiers fled to Brazil in 1808, fleeing from Napoleon and the actual capital of the Portuguese empire was thus relocated from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was practically equal to Portugal from that year and officially from 1815. Independence was finally proclaimed in 1822 by the Portuguese heir to the throne, Pedro, and Brazil became a monarchy.

After gaining independence from Spain, Greater Colombia was formed, consisting of the states of Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador. Briefly, Peru and Bolivia joined the alliance. But as early as 1832 the confederation finally disintegrated and today's nation states were formed.

 

Population

On January 1, 2010, about 390 million people lived in South America. The population of South America is characterized by a mixture of the peoples who were native there as indigenous inhabitants and the ethnic groups who later settled here. The latter were mostly European immigrants or slaves who had been brought here from Africa. Thus, the proportion of Mestizo, Mulatto and Zambos predominates. In Brazil, Afro-Latin Americans make up a larger proportion of the population, descended from slaves who were abducted from Africa. Remnants of the original population live almost exclusively in the Andean highlands and in the Amazon region. Only in a few countries do the indigenous peoples make up a significant proportion of the population, such as in Ecuador, Perú and Bolivia.

 

Languages

Since South America was divided between Spain and Portugal in the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494, Portuguese in its Brazilian variant is spoken in Brazil today, while Spanish is the national language in almost all other South American countries. Only in Suriname and on the islands of Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao is Dutch spoken as the official language. In addition to Dutch, Sranantongo is also spoken as a lingua franca in Suriname. English is spoken in Guyana and Trinidad and Tobago, and French is spoken in French Guiana, which is not an independent country but a French overseas department.

Other European languages spoken in South America are English (partly in Argentina), German (in southern Brazil and Chile, in Argentina, Paraguay and in German-speaking places in Venezuela) and Low German Plautdietsch, Italian (in Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay and Venezuela) and Welsh (in southern Argentina).

In Bolivia, indigenous languages are spoken by more than half of the population, sometimes alongside Spanish. Quechua and Aymara are by far the most widely spoken, followed by Guarani, spoken in the eastern lowlands. Since 2009, all indigenous languages of Bolivia have been recognized by the constitution as official languages alongside Spanish. In Peru, Quechua and Aymara are regionally recognized official languages alongside Spanish. Kichwa (or Quichua), which is related to Quechua and is widespread in the highlands of Ecuador, is not an official language there, but is recognized by the constitution. Guarani is one of the official languages of Paraguay, along with Spanish, where it is used by a bilingual majority. Colombia recognizes all indigenous languages spoken in the country as official languages, but fewer than one percent are native speakers. The most spoken indigenous language in Chile is Mapudungun ("Araucanian") of the Mapuche in southern Chile, along with Aymara in northern Chile and Rapanui on Easter Island.

 

Religions

The vast majority of the population professes the Roman Catholic faith. Liberation theology developed here in particular from about 1960, but it was supported by Pope John Paul II and the then head of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith and later Pope Benedict XVI. was fought. The proportion of Catholics has steadily decreased (as of 2007); Free churches and special religious communities grew (as of 2007). Pope Francis, in office since 2013, is Argentinian.

 

Slavery

Until the late 19th century, African slaves were mainly used on the export-oriented plantations in the Caribbean Basin, on the Pacific coast and in Brazil. Slavery was not abolished in Brazil until 1888, later than in almost all other countries.

Typical haciendas in the highlands secured the dependence of the indigenous people in that the farm workers were allotted a small plot of land and had to perform labor in return for the patrón. The systematic keeping of dependents in the socially relatively closed hacienda system lasted well into the 20th century.

 

Economy

Natural resources

Mining played an important role in many pre-colonial cultures in South America. One of the main reasons for the conquista was the subjugation of Indian gold and silver empires, with the Eldorado legend playing a role that should not be underestimated.

The South American Andes are particularly rich in metallic mineral resources. Some of the world's largest deposits of copper, tin, gold and silver are found in the central Andean belt. The most important copper ore producing country in 2006 was by far Chile and among the five largest tin producing countries three (Peru, Bolivia and Brazil) are in South America. The largest deposits of lithium salts, some of which are not yet mined, are found in the salt lakes, particularly in Chile (e.g. Salar de Atacama) and Bolivia (e.g. Salar de Uyuni).

The deposits of fossil fuels are also significant. The countries in the Orinoco Delta in the northwest of the continent have a large share of the oil reserves: Venezuela is already one of the world's largest producing countries and in Brazil a deposit was discovered in 2007 that is considered to be one of the largest oil reserves in the world.

Accordingly, the export of mineral resources is the most important source of foreign exchange for the countries of South America. The development and exploitation of the deposits always leads to territorial and cultural conflicts between the interests of the companies and the indigenous population. Massive environmental problems can be observed in particular with oil production: deforestation, road construction, soil and water contamination lead to a destruction of the ecological balance, especially in the Amazon lowlands, where many indigenous population groups still live in a sensitive ecosystem close to nature.

 

Agriculture

The agricultural structures were shaped by colonial influences up until the 20th century. To this day, land ownership is either held in huge estates by the large landowners or by subsistence smallholders.

In the course of the Spanish conquest, the system of encomienda (Spanish for "order") was first created. The goal was a profitable agricultural colonial system without the development of an autonomous hereditary nobility. To this end, the Spanish conquistadors received extensive land holdings in trust. The Spanish king remained the feudal lord, who entrusted the encomendero (“contractor”) with the task of cultivating the land and ensuring the protection and proselytizing of the indigenous population living there. In its practical implementation, however, this foreign administration is regarded as a particularly inhuman form of slavery, because the indigenous population represented no financial value for the landowners and was often carelessly worked to death.

Although the institution of the encomienda formally existed until 1791, it was successively replaced by the repartimiento (in English "allotment") from 1549 onwards. In the repartimiento system, Native American communities were obliged to provide the state with workers from their ranks.

After independence, the "fiduciary" estates were converted into private ownership, and although the farms called hacienda (Spanish) or fazenda (Portuguese) were significantly smaller, they often covered tens of thousands of hectares of land. The term latifundia is still used today for these large estates.

In many South American countries there are now efforts to distribute property more fairly through land reforms. So far, however, these have only been implemented with some degree of effectiveness in Venezuela and Peru. The reform carried out by the Sandinistas in Nicaragua has meanwhile been largely reversed. In Brazil, the Movimento dos Trabalhadores Rurais Sem Terra is fighting for extensive land reform.

 

Economic cooperation organizations

To date (as of 2016), a network of international organizations has formed, some with changing memberships:

Around Peru, the Andean Community was founded in 1969 as an international organization (Spanish Comunidad Andina de Naciones, abbreviation: CAN) for economic, political and social integration.
Around Argentina, the Mercado Común del Sur (short: Mercosur; Spanish: Common Market of the South) was created in 1991, in which the relatively heavily industrialized southern countries are striving to establish a domestic market.
Around Hugo Chávez's Venezuela, the Bolivarian Alliance for America, or ALBA for short, was initiated by countries with left-leaning governments. This organization initially had a lot of influence on the emancipation process of the states of South America, but is currently clearly the weakest of the organizations, at least in terms of economic importance.
The Amazon Pact, today OCTA (Portuguese: Organização do Tratado de Cooperação Amazônica), was brought into being around Brazil in 1978 with today's goal of sustainable development in Amazonia.
A more political than economic project is the Union of South American Nations, UNASUR for short, founded in 2004, which wants to promote continental integration along the lines of the European Union. The focus is on the fight against "inequality, social exclusion, hunger, poverty and insecurity". The initiative came from the two large organizations Mercosur and CAN, but Chile, Venezuela and the other countries in South America that are not full members there also joined.
Bolivia, as a geographically central country with a significant share in both the Amazon and the Andes region, is the only country that is a full member in all organizations.

 

Traffic

General

Due to the concentration of population on the coasts of South America, the most important transport connections also run here. The lack of efficient land-based direct connections between the countries of South America is problematic, since the interior of the continent is only poorly developed. In particular, there is a lack of efficient connections across the Andes and the Amazon with its tributaries.

air traffic
Air traffic is important both for traffic within the countries of South America and between the countries. Especially in large countries like Brazil, this is often the only connection between remote parts of the country. It is also often the only connection between the states of South America.

ship traffic
Shipping is of essential transport importance in South America, both in the area of the coasts and on some rivers such as the Amazon, the Rio de la Plata, the Orinoco and its tributaries as well as on inland lakes. Major ports are in Buenos Aires and Rosario in Argentina, Montevideo in Uruguay, Belém, Fortaleza, Ilhéus, Imbituba, Manaus, Paranaguá, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Rio Grande, Salvador, Santos and Vitória in Brazil, Cayenne in French Guiana, Paramaribo in Suriname, Georgetown in Guyana, La Guaira and Puerto Cabello in Venezuela, Barranquilla, Buenaventura and Cartagena in Colombia, Machala in Ecuador, Lima in Peru and Arica, Iquique, Antofagasta, Chañaral, Coquimbo, Valparaíso, San Antonio, Talcahuano, Puerto Montt and Punta Arenas in Chile. Until the opening of the Panama Canal, the most frequently used connection from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean was the dangerous circumnavigation of Cape Horn at the southern tip of the continent. The Strait of Magellan provides Chile with direct access to the Atlantic, which was significant as the country's economy has long been oriented towards Europe.

road and long-distance bus network
There is no connected road network. For example, the northern Brazilian city of Manaus is not connected to the rest of the road network. In order to improve the situation, road construction projects are currently being planned or under construction to open up the interior of South America and thus create direct connections between the Atlantic and Pacific states, such as the Transoceánica and the Transamazônica. The continent is crossed from north to south by the Panamericana. Most countries drive on the right, while Guyana and Suriname drive on the left.

Despite the sometimes poor road connections and long distances, long-distance bus transport is very important in most South American countries, as tickets are usually much cheaper than plane tickets. Overnight trips are common in many places and often last longer than 12 hours. Some international lines are also offered, but the vehicle usually has to be changed at the border. In addition to large buses, overland trips are also often offered with minibuses and scheduled taxis.

Rail transport
There is no continuous rail network. A dense rail network exists in particular in the metropolitan areas on the coasts, for example in the Rio de Janeiro area, São Paulo, Buenos Aires, Caracas or in the Santiago de Chile area. Connections exist between the rail networks of Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. The railway networks of Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela and Guyana, on the other hand, are isolated. There is currently no rail transport in Suriname and French Guiana. The rail networks in the hinterland of Brazil, Argentina and Chile have been severely thinned out in recent decades. Paraguay only has one cross-border connection to Argentina without any other domestic connections. The very different common track gauges of 600 mm, 760 mm, 1000 mm, 1435 mm, 1600 mm and 1676 mm are problematic, as they prevent the standardization of rail traffic in South America. Rail transport is only of secondary importance for passenger transport, often in suburban traffic. Freight transport is more important here. In some large cities, cable cars play an important role in local public transport.

Pipelines
Construction projects for pipelines are also being planned. This includes, for example, the Bolivia-Argentina route of the planned southern gas pipeline. In Brazil there are about 5000 km of oil pipelines. In addition, there are natural gas pipelines of about 4250 km.

 

Political Geography

The countries of South America are divided geopolitically as follows:

Andean countries: Colombia, Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia and Chile. These countries share specific ethnic, linguistic, and cultural similarities, such as the use of Quechua and adobe construction. As a result of the history of the Inca Empire, which extended in this region between about 800 and 1500, the term "Andean countries" is still used today as a term for the common cultural area.
Amazon Basin States (Amazonia): includes areas in the states of Brazil, French Guiana, Suriname, Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Due to its size, Brazil is often seen as an independent entity.
La Plata States: narrowly defined Argentina and Uruguay. What both countries have in common is their direct location on the Río de la Plata, the 290 km long and up to 220 km wide estuary of the great South American rivers Paraná and Uruguay. Paraguay and Bolivia also have a share in this catchment area via the Río Paraguay and its tributaries.
Cono Sur (dt. southern cone): Argentina, Chile and Uruguay, also to a certain extent Paraguay.
Caribbean countries: Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and French Guiana. These countries are often included in the Caribbean because of their colonial history and their economic and transport links to the Caribbean islands.
Trinidad and Tobago are traditionally counted among the Caribbean islands and thus part of Central America. However, the main island of Trinidad lies on the South American continental shelf and is also culturally influenced by neighboring Venezuela.
Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao (ABC Islands) are part of the Leeward Islands, an archipelago off the coast of Venezuela that is traditionally considered part of the Lesser Antilles and is therefore also often counted as part of Central America.

 

Political alliances and organizations

The Union of South American Nations (UNASUR) is the union of the twelve South American states founded in 2008. In the founding document, the aim of the Union is defined as the fight against "inequality, social exclusion, hunger, poverty and insecurity". By 2025, integration comparable to that of the European Union is to be achieved with a common currency, a South American parliament and uniform passports. With French Guiana, an overseas department of France, the European Union itself extends to South America and has an external border with Suriname and Brazil.

Despite all the progress, it is currently (as of 2016) questionable whether the goals can be achieved as early as 2025. The various economic and political alliances sometimes pursue different goals, especially when it comes to free trade and cooperation with the USA and other world powers. There is also often a lack of willingness on the part of their members to cede extensive powers to the supranational alliances. The weakness of the leading countries Brazil, Argentina and Venezuela, which has existed for several years, is also a major obstacle to further steps towards integration.

In the course of the emancipation movements, the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States (CELAC for short) is also becoming increasingly important for the countries of South America, while the Organization of American States, which is dominated by the USA, or even the Ibero-American Summit, which is dominated by Spain, are increasingly taking a back seat.