Argentina Destinations Travel Guide
Population: 40,677,348
Calling code: +54
Currency: Peso (ARS)
Language: Spanish
Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a sovereign
country of South America, located in the extreme south and southeast
of that subcontinent. It adopts the republican, democratic,
representative and federal form of government.
Argentina is
organized as a decentralized federal state, integrated since 1994 by
twenty-three provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires
(CABA), the federal capital of the country. The twenty-four
self-governing jurisdictions have their own constitution, flag and
security force, enjoy three autonomous powers and guarantee the
autonomy of their municipalities while delegating exclusive powers
to the National State.
Its American continental territory
covers a large part of the Southern Cone, bordered to the north by
Bolivia and Paraguay, to the northeast by Brazil, to the east by
Uruguay and the Atlantic Ocean, to the west by Chile and, always in
its American sector, to the south by Chile and the Atlantic waters
of the Drake Passage.
Argentina is the second country with
the highest Human Development Index (HDI) in Latin America, only
behind its neighbor Chile. Its public health and education models
guarantee free and universal access. Spending on education exceeds
6% of GDP, with a literacy rate of more than 99% for people over the
age of 15. While in health, it is allocated around 10% and has a
widely established coverage throughout the territory.
The
Argentine economy is the second most developed and important in
South America. According to the World Bank, its nominal GDP is the
27th.º of the world. Due to its geopolitical and economic
importance, it is one of the three sovereign states of Latin America
that are members of the Group of 20 and is part of the NIC or new
industrialized countries.
Its eminent capabilities in
scientific and technological development have allowed it to design,
produce and export satellites, radars, nuclear reactors and to be a
producer of software, biotechnology, medical technology,
aeronautics, automotive, agricultural, chemistry, etc. With five
laureates, it is the Latin American country with the largest number
of Nobel prizes, three of them in science. Due to its historical
character as an agro-exporting model, it is one of the largest food
producers in the world. Their culture, idiosyncrasies, education,
creativity and encouragement achieved innovative inventions, as well
as outstanding contributions in literature, music, sports and other
disciplines. It is considered a regional power and in the coming
decades economic growth is expected to be higher than that obtained
in the twentieth century.
It has provided growing nuclear
cooperation to countries in Latin America, the Maghreb, the Persian
Gulf, Southeast Asia and Oceania, based on the capabilities
developed by the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA) and the
prestigious state-owned company INVAP.
It is a bicontinental
country with an area of 2 780 400 km2, it is the largest
Spanish-speaking country on the planet, the second largest in Latin
America and eighth in the world, if only the continental area
subject to effective sovereignty is considered. Its continental
shelf, recognized by the UN in 2016, reaches 6,581,500 km2, becoming
one of the largest in the world, extending from the American
continent to the South Pole in Antarctica, through the South
Atlantic. If we count the Malvinas Islands, South Georgia, South
Sandwich and numerous other minor islands (administered by the
United Kingdom, but of disputed sovereignty), plus a portion of the
Antarctic area called Argentine Antarctica south of the parallel 60°
S, over which Argentina claims sovereignty, the surface area rises
to 3,761,274 km2. It is one of the twenty countries that have a
permanent presence in Antarctica, being among them the one with the
largest number of permanent bases, with six in total.
Its
territory brings together a great diversity of climates, caused by a
latitudinal amplitude that exceeds 30° — including several
geoastronomic zones —, a difference in altitude that goes from 107 m
below sea level (Laguna del Carbón) to almost 7000 m a.s.l. and the
extension of the maritime coastline that reaches 4725 km. Wide humid
plains border with extensive deserts and high mountains, while the
presence of tropical and subtropical climates in the north, contrast
with snowfall and extreme cold in the cordilleran areas and the
south.
The first records of settlers in the current Argentine
territory date back to the thirteen thousand years AP, during the
Paleoamerican. In protohistorical times, pre-Columbian period, it
was inhabited by numerous indigenous peoples, some of whom still
inhabit the country; among them Guaycurúes, guaraníes, Mapuches,
Tehuelches and diaguitas, the latter were part of the Inca Empire.
The Spanish conquest of the current Argentine territory began with
exploratory trips from the year 1512, the establishment of a
population in 1528 and the distribution of the territory to the
advanced ones. Later, it came under the jurisdiction of the
Viceroyalty of Peru. In 1776, the Spanish Crown founded the
viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, which would be a political
entity preceding the current Argentine Republic. On May 25, 1810,
the viceregal system was replaced, deposing the last viceroy who
ruled from Buenos Aires, thus organizing the First Government Junta,
which acted autonomously ignoring the Regency Council of Spain. On
July 9, 1816, independence was proclaimed in San Miguel de Tucumán.
He is a member of Mercosur - the bloc of which he was the
founder in 1991 -, the Organization of American States (OAS).
Pampas
The economic heartland of Argentina is located in the
central east of the country. It is a vast grassy plain that is now used
extensively for agriculture, particularly for raising livestock, which
is why it is sometimes jokingly called 'the world's largest cow
pasture'. Most of the country's major cities are located in this region,
including the capital Buenos Aires.
Province of Buenos Aires · La
Pampa · South of Santa Fe · East of Córdoba
Mesopotamia
Mesopotamia, intermediate river country, is the name given to the
north-east of the country, which is located between the two rivers Río
Paraná and Río Uruguay. While the south is flat, low mountain ranges can
be found in the northeast, in the province of Misiones. The Iguazú Falls
are the area's main attraction.
Entre Rios Corrientes Missiones
Chaco
A flat bush savannah landscape that adjoins Mesopotamia to
the west. While the east is humid and used intensively for agriculture,
the west has a long dry period with frequent droughts in the winter
months. There lies the Impenetrable, an impenetrable bush jungle.
Formosa Chaco Santiago del Estero North of Santa Fe Laguna Mar Chiquita
Sierra's Pampeanas
A low mountain range in central and western
Argentina. The mountain ranges in some cases reach heights of up to
6,000 meters and are mostly covered by dry scrubland. The best known as
a tourist destination are the Sierras de Córdoba in the province of the
same name.
Sierras de Cordoba · Sierras de San Luis · Sierras de
Valle Fértil · Sierras de La Rioja · Sierras de Catamarca
Cuyo
Connects to the west of the Pampine Sierren. It includes the central
Andes in the west and a flat to hilly dry steppe in the east, in which
wine is cultivated thanks to artificial irrigation. The Cuyo is known
for its particularly sunny climate.
Mendoza · Andean area of San Juan
· Andean area of La Rioja
Patagonia
Southern Argentina, south
of the Rio Colorado, is an arid scrub steppe with a windy but mild
climate. The area is sparsely populated, but has many attractions such
as the Valdés Peninsula.
Rio Negro Neuquen Chubut Santa Cruz Tierra
del Fuego
Northwest Argentina
The border area to Chile and
Bolivia is characterized by diverse mountain landscapes between the Puna
plateau at 3,500 m and subtropical jungle areas and is the area of
Argentina with the most buildings from the colonial era.
Jujuy
Tucumán Salta Andean area of Catamarca
Most of Argentina's big cities, especially the capital Buenos Aires,
have a very European flair because many immigrants from Europe have
settled in them. Buenos Aires, for example, is known as "the Paris of
South America". In contrast, the cities in the north of the country in
particular seem more like how Latin America is imagined in Europe - more
colourful, chaotic and also poorer.
In addition to the colonial
architecture, which is only occasionally really worth seeing (especially
in Salta and Córdoba), the Argentine cities are often dominated
architecturally from the period between 1900 and 1930. Styles such as
Art Nouveau (French Art Nouveau) and Art Deco can be found in almost all
larger towns. Cultural life is often rich and each city has its own
strengths and local specialities, but due to the lack of calendars of
events you usually have to ask the locals for advice, and even the
tourist information offices are not always very knowledgeable.
The biggest cities:
Buenos Aires (2.9 million inhabitants,
metropolitan area approx. 12.8 million), the capital and by far the
largest city in Argentina with a cultural scene worth seeing.
Córdoba
(1.6 million inhabitants with suburbs), the inland metropolis, with a
lot of culture and colonial buildings
Rosario (1.3 million
inhabitants with suburbs), port city on the Río Paraná with a pleasant,
subtropical atmosphere
Mendoza (1 million inhabitants with suburbs),
the largest city in western Argentina, an oasis metropolis worth seeing
San Miguel de Tucumán (pop. 800,000), the hot, nocturnal capital of the
Northwest, nestled in an idyllic subtropical landscape
La Plata
(700,000 inhabitants), modern and clean capital of the province of
Buenos Aires
Mar del Plata (580,000 inhabitants), largest seaside
resort on the Atlantic, with over two million visitors a year
Salta
(500,000 inhabitants), the best preserved colonial city in the country,
situated in an idyllic valley.
Santa Fe (500,000 inhabitants), port
city on the Río Paraná with the venerable flair of the 19th century
San Juan (470,000 inhabitants), oasis metropolis near the Andes, with
good excursion possibilities
Resistencia (population 380,000 with
suburbs), the hot "City of Sculptures" on the northern Río Paraná
Corrientes (350,000 inhabitants), opposite Resistencia, known for its
buildings and its hot carnival
Neuquén (350,000 inhabitants with
suburbs), largest city in Patagonia, situated on two rivers
Posadas
(320,000 inhabitants with suburbs), modern capital of the province of
Misiones
San Salvador de Jujuy (320,000 inhabitants with suburbs),
the capital of the province of Jujuy situated in wooded mountains with a
colonial center and a cultural scene worth seeing
Bahía Blanca
(300,000 inhabitants), port city on the Atlantic, with a center and
harbor worth seeing
San Carlos de Bariloche, holiday resort in the southern Andes, in a
lake landscape worth seeing
San Martín de los Andes, seaside resort
in the southern Andes on the idyllic Lake Lacar
Ushuaia, the
southernmost city in the world on the wild southern tip of Tierra del
Fuego
Puerto Iguazú, town near the famous Iguazú Falls
Cafayate, a
wine-growing metropolis in the province of Salta, beautifully situated
in a high valley
Chaco Province
Chubut Province
Lago Puelo National Park is situated in the Chubut Province. This natural reserve covers an area of 276.74 sq km.
Los Alerces National Park is located 28 mi (45 km) West of Esquel in Chubut Province. It covers an area of 2,630 sq km.
Reserva Faunística Península Valdés is a natural reserve that protects biosphere of the peninsula Valdes in Argentina.
Punta Tombo Provincial Reserve is located 66 mi South of Trelew. It is famous for huge colonies of various species of penguins who come here.
Cordoba Province
Quebrada del Condorito National Park is located 53 mi (85 km) Southwest of Córdoba, Córdoba Province in Argentina.
Corrientes Province
Ibera Wetlands covers an area of 20,000 km² making it one of the largest wetland biosphere in the World.
Entre Rios Province
El Palmar National Park is situated in 31 mi (50 km) North of Colón, Entre Ríos. This natural reserve covers an area of 85 sq km.
Palacio San Jose is an elegant historic palace in Entre Ríos Province.
Predelta National Park is located 62 mi North of Rosaria, Entre Ríos Province in Argentina. Predelta National Park covers an area of 24.58 km².
Formosa Province
Río Pilcomayo National Park is located 224 mi North of Resistancia, Formosa Province. Río Pilcomayo National Park covers an area of 47,754 ha.
Jujuy Province
Calilegua National Park was established in 1979 to preserve La Yungas or subtropical humid Oranense Forest.
Quebrada de Humahuaca is about 155 km and its well protected unique biosphere made this valley a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Santa Catalina is a beautiful Roman Catholic Church of the Jesuit order and situated 13 mi North of Jesus Maria in the province of Córdoba.
La Pampa Province
Nature preserve of Lihué Calel National Park is situated in La Pampa Province of Argentina.
La Rioja Province
Talampaya National Park is a nature preserve located in La Rioja Province in Argentina.
Mendoza Province
Aconcagua Provincial Park takes its name from quechua word of 'Ackon-Cauak', which roughtly is translated as ‘Stone Sentinel’.
Las Lenas Ski Resort is one of the largest ski resorts in the South America. It is located 43 mi North-west of Malarque at a elevation of 3,430 m.
Misiones Province
Iguaçu Falls or Iguazu Falls are located 12 mi (19 km) Northeast of Puerto Iguaçu on the border between Brazil and Argentina.
San Ignacio Mini in Misiones Province in Argentina is famous for ruins of the Jesuit mission from the 17th century.
Neuquén Province
Centro Paleontologico Lago Barreales is famous for its collection of fossils of ancient animals and even participate in digs yourself.
Laguna Blanca National Park is situated 93 mi (150 km) West of Neuquen in Argentina. It covers an area of 112.5 sq km.
Lanín National Park is nature reserve named after breath taking Lanin volcano that rises within its borders.
Los Arrayanes National Park is situated in Neuquén Province and covers an area of 17.53 sq km of Quetrihué Peninsula in the North Nahuel Huapi Lake.
Parque Nacional Nahuel Huapi is famous for unknown water monster as well as a former site of a secret lab where Nazis worked after World War II.
San Juan Province
El Leoncito National Park is located in San Juan Province in Argentina. The national park covers and area of 760 sq km.
Ischigualasto is famous for its picturesque, unique rock formations and covers an area of 603.7 km2 (233 sq mi).
San Guillermo National Park is located in Iglesia Province in Argentina. San Guillermo National Park covers an area of 160,000 hectares.
San Luis Province
Sierra de las Quijadas National Park is located 104 mi (167 km) Southeast of San Juan, San Luis Province in Argentina.
Salta Province
El Rey National Park is situated 155 mi (250 km) South- East of Jujuy. This national preserve covers an area of 441 sq km.
Los Cardones National Park is located 16 mi North of Cafayate, Salta Province in Argentina. Los Cardones National Park covers an area of 650 km².
Santa Cruz Province
Cueva de las Manos is is famous for prehistoric rock paintings that were made 9000 years ago.
Monte Fitz Roy or Fitzroy is a mountain on the border between Argentina and Chile. Mount Fitz Roy mountain reaches a height of 3,359 m (11,020 ft).
Perito Moreno National Park is named after famous Argentinean explorer Perito Moreno it covers an area of 115,000 hectares.
Monte León National Park is located 28 mi (45 km) Southeast of Puerto Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz Province in Argentina.
Monumento Natural Bosques Petrificados is a natural park that protects fossils of the ancient petrified forest located 159 mi West of Puerto Peseado.
Tierra del Fuego Province
Tierra del Fuego National Park is located in Tierra del Fuego Province of Argentina. This national park covers an area of 630 sq km.
Tucuman Province
Quilmes Ruins are located in 110 mi Northwest of Tucuman, Tucumán Province. It is famous for one of the largest settlements from pre-Columbian era.
EU citizens are exempt from the visa
requirement and only need a valid passport to enter the country. A
return or onward ticket is sometimes, but not always, required. The
tourist visa, which is given free of charge upon arrival, lasts 90 days
and can be extended once for a further 90 days for a moderate fee at any
branch of the Immigration Office (Dirección Nacional de Migraciones, to
be found in every provincial capital). Children traveling alone and
those with only one legal guardian need a travel permit from the legal
guardian or the second parent. In addition, adults up to the age of 21
should carry a certificate of legal majority in their home country.
Pets require a health certificate that is no more than 10 days old
and proof of a rabies vaccination (except for pets under 3 months old).
Upon arrival at the airport, a veterinary examination is carried out,
the cost of which must be borne by the traveler.
The
arrival is usually via the capital Buenos Aires and can be done at two
airports. The international Airport Ministro Pistarini (colloquially
called Ezeiza) is served by numerous airlines from all over the world -
some with stopovers in Europe or Brazil.
The airport is about 40
km south of the city. You can either take one of the private taxi/depots
to the city center or take a shuttle bus (Manuel Tienda León). There is
also a regular bus (lines 8 and 51) to the city center, but it takes a
long time; for those on a budget it is more advisable to take a taxi or
bus (line 502) to the nearby town of Ezeiza and from there take the
train to Constitución train station. The correct prices are also
signposted at the airport - but if you want to be sure, it's best to ask
the taxi driver again.
The second airport of Buenos Aires Jorge
Newbery (colloquially Aeroparque) is located in the city itself, in the
Palermo district on the Río de la Plata. Thus, the costs for access are
correspondingly lower. From here you can reach all important and larger
destinations within Argentina and Uruguay, but sometimes there are also
connections to Santiago de Chile or Lima. However, the Aeroparque has no
overseas connections. In many cases one has to transfer between the two
airports to get to inland destinations. The Manuel Tienda León bus line
is recommended here (approx. 1 hour 20 minutes).
The only other
airport in Argentina with direct connections to most neighboring
countries and Central America is Córdoba. There are also international
connections from neighboring countries to the airports in Rosario,
Mendoza, Tucumán, Río Gallegos and Salta.
The airspace over Chile
and parts of South America was disrupted by the ash cloud from the
Chilean volcano Puyehue in spring 2011, and numerous flights were
cancelled. Such an incident can be repeated at any time and mostly
affects the south-west of the country (Neuquén/Bariloche area), where
flight connections are sometimes canceled for weeks.
There are currently no official international passenger train routes through which one can enter Argentina. The only route is from Antofagasta (Chile) to Salta on which a freight train with passenger service operates. However, this route was temporarily closed at the end of 2005 due to the poor condition of the route. Until 2010, only one tourist train was reactivated on this route, the Tren a las Nubes, but it did not reach the Chilean border.
There are international connections from the neighboring countries of Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay and Brazil to the largest cities, especially Buenos Aires and Córdoba, as well as to towns near the border. Coming from Peru and Bolivia, you have to change trains at the border town after crossing the border on foot or by taxi.
Good, tarred roads lead into Argentina from all neighboring countries. See also: Panamericana. It should be noted that most border crossings to Chile are on mountain passes, which are at least temporarily closed in winter. The exception is the new Paso de Jama in the province of Jujuy (connection between Antofagasta and Jujuy/Salta), and the Santiago-Mendoza route is also mostly passable. They are described in the country article Chile. The Chilean border police provide a complete list.
The largest port is the city of Buenos Aires. All publicly accessible ships from Europe arrive here, regardless of whether they are freighters or passenger ships. However, the latter is rare. Car ferries from Montevideo and Colonia del Sacramento (Uruguay) arrive in the old port of Buenos Aires (Puerto Madero).
Almost all important tourist destinations or economically important
places in Argentina can be reached by plane and are usually served
daily. The only major airlines that survived the Argentina crisis around
the turn of the millennium are Aerolíneas Argentinas, the state-owned
Líneas Aéreas del Estado (LADE) (in the south) and LAN Argentina
(offshoot of LAN Chile), and there are also regional companies such as
Sol, Silver Sky and Andes, which are comparable to the low-cost airlines
in Europe in terms of comfort, but are only slightly cheaper than the
large companies - they often also offer cross-routes between smaller
cities. The hub of national air traffic is Buenos Aires with its two
large airports Ministro Pistarini (Ezeiza) and Jorge Newbery.
The
flight prices are more expensive than the corresponding bus connections
and also more expensive than European "low-cost airlines", but due to
the large distances in the country they are often justified in terms of
time. However, early bookers can get significant discounts on popular
routes, pushing the plane down to bus price levels. However, almost all
airlines charge foreign tourists a higher fare than locals (surcharge of
20% - 40%), since the cheapest fare class is subsidized and residents
(residents in Argentina) are reserved.
The railway currently
plays a minor role in public transport in Argentina. Since for a long
time hardly any money was spent on maintaining the sometimes very
extensive route networks, most connections were shut down. After 2004,
some routes were reopened, but no modernization has been associated with
this so far. There have been plans for a high-speed network since the
Menem era; In 2008 the government signed a contract with Alstom, which
also operates the French TGV, for a new line between Buenos Aires and
Córdoba. However, the project is currently on hold and it is unlikely
that it will be implemented in the near future.
Long-distance
trains run between Buenos Aires and several locations in the province of
Buenos Aires (including Mar del Plata, Tandil and Bahía Blanca), as well
as to Rosario, Córdoba, Santa Rosa and San Miguel de Tucumán. Many of
these lines, especially those in the province of Buenos Aires, are often
closed for repairs, so it's a good idea to check the Satélite
Ferroviario, an independent, regularly updated website with all
timetables and prices, for the latest updates. In Patagonia, in the
province of Río Negro, there are the train routes Viedma - San Antonio
Oeste - Ingeniero Jacobacci - Bariloche and the "Old Patagonia Express"
(El Trochita) from Ingeniero Jacobacci to Esquel, which, however, runs
irregularly and mostly only on partial routes as a tourist train .
The condition of the trains is variable, but has improved in the
years following the economic crisis, particularly on long-distance
routes and in the higher classes. Nevertheless, they often take
significantly more time than an intercity bus on the same route.
Exceptions are the well-developed routes to places on the Atlantic coast
and to Rosario. On the other hand, the trains are significantly cheaper
than the buses, have a restaurant and sometimes a cinema or even a disco
car on board and sometimes offer the option of renting a sleeper car and
taking your car with you (car travel trains).
There are several
regional and suburban train connections in the greater Buenos Aires
area. There is also a suburban train and two regional trains around
Resistencia in the northeast. A modern light rail system has been
operating in Mendoza since 2012, there are some regional connections in
Entre Ríos and Salta and the Tren de las Sierras in Córdoba.
The
bus is the most popular means of transport in Argentina and is usually
the cheapest way to get around. They run several times a day, especially
between the larger towns (e.g. Córdoba − Buenos Aires), and night trips
are usually offered for distances of more than 500 km. You can buy your
ticket at ticket counters at the bus terminal and in travel agencies,
and large lines now also offer the option of booking tickets online. The
buses are usually comfortable, clean and have air conditioning. At best,
on very long routes, such as in Patagonia, later boarding passengers
have to reckon with cleanliness problems. For longer distances you can
choose between semi cama or cama seats; the seats can be folded down and
converted into loungers, so that you can sleep on overnight bus
journeys. These are highly recommended as due to the large distances in
Argentina a journey can easily take 12 to 24 hours. However, semi-cama
buses can be quite narrow for tall people. Websites where you can check
the current connections and prices (unfortunately many bus companies are
missing) are Plataforma 10 and Central de Pasajes. For bus connections
from Buenos Aires, the current departure times and prices for all bus
companies can be queried from Omnilineas, at least for all larger or
touristically interesting travel destinations. The price system is
largely standardized, and there are only real bargains on a few routes.
Expect to pay around 70-100 ARS per 100km, some remote routes are e.g.
T. significantly more expensive.
Rental cars are available at all
major airports, with international companies such as Avis being
particularly common. The cost is around ARS 500-900 per day for a small
car, with larger cars costing proportionately more. Renting an off-road
vehicle is almost mandatory, especially in remote areas, because you
often have to rely on gravel roads.
Hitchhiking in Argentina is
only recommended on busy roads and in tourist areas - unless you have a
lot of patience. The best thing to do is ask truck drivers at petrol
stations, who often take travelers with them for small favors or for
free. If you hitchhike, don't dress too casually, as Argentine drivers
are very suspicious and may mistake you for a thief. Hoodies, baseball
caps and sweatpants in particular make things more difficult. It is also
almost hopeless and sometimes dangerous to wait for drivers in a big
city - you usually have to drive a few kilometers out of town, for
example with a local bus. Information about hitchhiking in Argentina can
be found on the Autostop Argentina website, which also runs a wiki.
Furthermore, the situation seems to have improved in recent years, as
can be read on the English-language WikiVoyage page.
Carpooling:
In rural areas, it is common to stand in a known spot (e.g. a plaza)
where cars that frequent the route will stop and ask for some money for
gas. The corresponding bus fare is often asked for, but fraud is rare in
rural areas. Here you have to ask the locals what is customary. There
have also been car-sharing agencies on the Internet for a few years,
including Carpoolear, which uses the social network Facebook, and
Viajamos Juntos from Spain (with an Argentina page). However, you only
have a chance on busy routes.
For Europeans, counting the house
numbers is confusing at first, but it is good for orientation in the
chessboard pattern that characterizes almost all cities in the country.
For each complete block (cuadra, each measuring about 100 meters), the
figure increases by 100, according to the even or odd side of the
street, starting mostly from the streets that intersect in the central
square of the town. For example, the house number 1830 means a distance
of about 18 blocks and 30 meters to the reference street. In Buenos
Aires, for example, this space for the Microcentro area is the Parque
Colón, which is located in front of the Casa Rosada (see Buenos
Aires/Center).
The official language is Spanish (called "español" or "castellano"),
with clear differences from standard Spanish. In Buenos Aires and other
tourist centers one can expect to get by with English for the main
services, otherwise the population's English skills are limited,
especially in rural areas, although English is a compulsory subject in
schools everywhere.
Pronunciation
Argentine pronunciation
differs slightly from school Spanish. The double L (ll) is not
pronounced like "j" but like a soft "sh", the same applies to the "y",
which is also pronounced like a soft "sch". An "S" in the middle of a
word is often blurred into a soft, barely audible "ch". In central and
northwestern Argentina, the rolled "r" becomes a hybrid, soft "rsch".
Grammar
The du form is formed and accented differently: instead
of tú, the pronoun vos is used and in the verb form the last syllable is
stressed. Thus, in Argentina, the Castilian Tu puedes becomes Vos podés.
The vosotros ("you") is replaced by the polite ustedes. In addition, the
form of the pretérito perfecto (e.g. he viajado) is rarely used and is
replaced by the pretérito indefinido (e.g. viajé). However, the
respective standard Spanish form is also understood without any
problems.
Some words mean something different in Argentine
Spanish than in traditional Spanish, and can cause unintentional
hilarity. In particular, the verb coger ("to take"), which is common in
Spanish, is a vulgar expression for sexual intercourse in Argentina and
is therefore replaced by tomar or agarrar.
Languages of the
indigenous peoples
The languages of the indigenous peoples (“pueblos
indígenas”), such as Quechua, Guaraní and Mapudungun, are still spoken
in isolated rural areas. There are still around one million people of
Amerindian origin living in Argentina, but unlike in neighboring
countries, almost all of them also speak Spanish. An exception are the
Toba (also qom) and Wichi in Formosa, Chaco, Salta and Jujuy, who live
in remote areas in very primitive conditions and great poverty and are
mostly illiterate.
Argentina's price level is comparable to that of most European
countries. Up until the early 1990s, Argentina was notorious for its
chronic financial instability. Devaluations of 100% and more annually
were not uncommon, often resulting in perks for travellers. After a
stable period of peso-dollar parity between 1991 and 2001, the Argentine
peso (ARS for short), the country's currency, fell again against the
dollar to less than a third of its previous value as a result of the
economic crisis. This made Argentina significantly cheaper for travelers
from Europe and the USA in the short term. Since 2007, prices have only
been significantly below the European level in a few cases (energy,
public transport, some groceries, and also rent in the north) due to
high inflation. Significant devaluations of the peso in 2009, 2014, 2015
and 2018 by 30 to 40 percent each prevented a further relative increase
in price. Overall, Buenos Aires and southern Patagonia are the most
expensive in terms of prices, central and eastern Argentina are roughly
in the middle, and northern Argentina is the cheapest.
Haggling
(called hacer precio, [get a better] price) is not usually common in
Argentina, at least not in shops. In the case of sales of used goods
between private individuals, including on advertising platforms on the
Internet, it is certainly possible to discuss the price; more than 10% -
15% discount can hardly be knocked out.
Between 2011 and 2015,
strict foreign exchange restrictions were in place at times due to fears
of capital flight. These were repealed in 2015 but reintroduced in
modified form in 2019; Individuals are only allowed to purchase $200 a
month at the official rate and are subject to a 20 percent tax and an
advance on income tax.
Argentinian leather products
are particularly popular with foreigners, some of which are
significantly cheaper than in Europe and also have their own traditional
style in terms of style. Traditional accessories such as mate cups,
ponchos, traditional musical instruments and jewelry are also popular
purchases.
Every town tends to have at least one craft market
selling traditional and modern items. There the souvenirs are often much
cheaper than in the souvenir shops in the city centres. One can also
assume that souvenirs from a certain region (e.g. the traditional
musical instruments of the Andes region) are cheapest locally and that
there is also the largest selection.
In Argentina
there are supermarkets of all sizes in every town (large supermarkets
are called hipermercados) where you can get all the groceries you need
and often clothes and stationery. Most of the time, there are also
numerous supermercados chinos in the barrios of small and large cities,
small supermarkets that are mostly run by Chinese or Koreans and often
have a fruit and vegetable stand and a butcher's counter. Bags and
backpacks, with any goods you may have already bought, usually have to
be locked in small lockers at the entrance to self-service shops, which
the security staff will be happy to point out. Also typical of the
suburbs are corner shops, almacenes or despensas, which are sometimes
cheaper than the respective supermarkets. Vegetables and meat are sold
separately in verdulerías and carnicerías (butchers, chicken butchers
are called pollerías), which have held up well so far despite
competition from supermarkets.
Clothing of all types is about as
expensive in Argentina as it is in Europe, but branded clothing can also
be more expensive. It should be noted that oversize shoes in particular
(from around 41 for women and 45 for men) are difficult to obtain. The
same applies to pants, but here, at least in big cities, there are
special shops for plus sizes. Since the late 1980s, the shopping malls,
large galleries based on the US model with a large number of shops and
often also cinemas, restaurants and small amusement parks for children,
have been popular for buying clothes and shoes.
The food alone can be worth a trip to Argentina. Gastronomy is
described in the article Eating and drinking in Argentina.
Although the breakfast is rather spartan, there are already delicious
pastry specialties (golosinas and facturas), particularly typical here
are the criollos, small biscuits made of puff pastry. You can also have
a leisurely breakfast in a restaurant, where you get orange juice,
coffee, water, criollos, toast, medialunas (croissants), dulce de leche
or jam and butter as a complete desayuno. Eggs, cheese and sausage are
not common in Argentinian breakfasts.
Certainly the most popular
food is the asado, where various types of beef including offal and spicy
sausages ("chorizos") are usually grilled in the garden and then eaten
with various salads. In restaurants, the asado is called parrillada.
Different types of meat are served here for as long as your stomach
allows.
But if you think Argentina only serves rare steaks,
you're wrong. Certainly, being a vegetarian has it a little harder,
since most restaurants have very few non-meat dishes on their menus.
However, pizza magherita (known locally as pizza muzzarella) is
ubiquitous, and it's usually very tasty too, and is usually served with
a thicker crust and more cheese than in Europe. A pizza is enough for
two to three people. In big cities, however, there are also vegetarian
and vegan restaurants and takeaways that are slowly becoming more
popular. If you have the opportunity to cook for yourself, you should
buy all kinds of fruit and vegetables for a few pesos at small fruit and
vegetable stands and let off steam in the kitchen.
Pasta dishes,
chicken, milanesa (schnitzel) and many types of sandwiches and burgers
(i.e. meat in bread) are also popular. Fish is also on the menu in good
restaurants, but it's only really popular on the coast. Also highly
recommended are the specialties from northern Argentina: empanadas
(stuffed dumplings), humita (overcooked corn served with peppers in
leaves) and locro (meat, sausage and corn stew with a whole range of
spices), considered the national dish of the country is applicable.
The portions are usually generous and there are often inexpensive
menu options that include a starter, salad and dessert. Often the
tenedor libre or served libre, "all-you-can-eat" restaurants, where you
can serve yourself from a buffet for a fixed price as often as you like.
With very cheap offers, however, skepticism is appropriate because of
the quality.
McDonald's and Burger King are somewhat at a
disadvantage in this country, because compared to all the restaurants
and takeaways, Argentina's burger chains are rather expensive and
boring. There is also an armada of fast food stands and restaurants,
most of which are cheaper than McDonald's. Each city typically has its
own fast food chain, and many eateries are independently operated.
Maybe a little tip: if you go out to eat, you should bring some time
with you and not get upset if everything is a bit slower and more
relaxed.
Finally, to the sweets. What is not salty in Argentina
is usually extremely sweet. The dulce de leche, a very sweet caramel
cream, is present in almost every pastry. There are entire supermarkets
that sell nothing but sweets. Those with a sweet tooth shouldn't miss
the opportunity to buy and enjoy an alfajor (small mini cake with dulce
de leche) for a few pesos while strolling at one of the many kiosks.
The ice cream in the heladerias (ice cream parlors), especially in
the big cities, hardly has to hide from Italian ice cream, perhaps also
due to the tradition that some ice cream parlor operators once made a
living in Argentina in the southern summer and in Italy in the northern
summer. Usually you first say at the checkout which cup you want to
choose and then take the receipt to the counter, which is usually
presented in groups of chocolate, dulce-de-leche varieties, fruit on
water, cremas and fruit on milk. Here you name 2 or 3 types, depending
on the size of the sundae or the cone - another tip, Frutas al agua
should not be confused with Central European water ice and should not be
missed.
Argentinian wine is well-known abroad and is considered one of the
best in the world. Compared to European wines, it is very cheap,
especially when it comes to quality varieties. It is mostly grown in the
west of the country. An infinite number of brands are recommended, e.g. Trapiche, Postales del Fin del Mundo and San Felipe. Recently, many
"favourite" wines (e.g. New Age, Freeze, Suá and O2) have appeared,
which are mostly low-carbonated sparkling wines with a mild taste. (See
also: Argentina wine country at Koch-Wiki)
The beer, on the other
hand, has a very uniform taste and is average in quality (brands:
Quilmes, Isenbeck, Bieckert, Schneider and Palermo - of which Isenbeck
and Schneider do not contain any additives - as well as the foreign
beers Brahma, Warsteiner, Corona, Stella Artois and Heineken). If you
can't do without German beer, you can buy it in the supermarkets of the
Jumbo and (less choice) Vea/Disco chains. Locally made spirits are very
cheap, but foreign imports are quite expensive.
Since the 1990s,
a particularly typical fashion drink has been Fernet Branca with cola,
fernet con coca or fernando. The majority of world production of this
herbal liqueur, which actually comes from Italy, is consumed in
Argentina, especially in the central Argentine Cuarteto scene around
Córdoba.
Coffee is drunk very often in Argentina and is usually
very heavily sweetened, but of course you can get the sugar separately
in a café or restaurant. Café con leche is a latte, while café cortado
is coffee with a dash of milk. Al revés (vice versa) or lagrima, on the
other hand, means that the milk content exceeds the coffee content.
Argentina's national drink is mate, an herbal tea drunk from a
calabash with a straw. Mate drinking is a true ritual, with all members
of a group drinking from a single mate cup.
Soft drinks from
international brands (such as Coca-Cola etc.) are available everywhere
in Argentina, while fruit juices are rarer and relatively expensive.
Recently, many brands of sweetened diet sodas with a fitness image (e.g.
Ser, Magna) have established themselves. Mineral water is usually drunk
non-carbonated. A cheap alternative to normal carbonated mineral water
is soda, normal drinking water mixed with carbonic acid, which tastes
almost indistinguishable from mineral water and is completely harmless
to health.
In Argentina, nightlife used to really start around 2:00 a.m. Since
the mid-2000s, but increasingly since 2009, there have been strict
curfew regulations or alcohol curfews in Buenos Aires and the main
provinces as well as in the north, so that the opening hours of the
nightclubs have been pushed back a little. The previously popular
after-hours have since been banned in Buenos Aires and Córdoba or have
migrated to the illegal and private sphere. In the meantime, depending
on local conditions, it is therefore ideal to go between 0:00 and 1:00
a.m., also to avoid long queues.
In all major cities there is a
variety of bars, pubs, clubs and discotheques for every taste (only the
Gothic scene is a bit behind, but there is a lot of Latin American
music). Even every village has its boliche, where young people spend the
night on Fridays and Saturdays.
There are roughly four types of
nightclubs. On the one hand there are the typical mainstream clubs that
play a mixture of popular rock and pop hits, some dancefloor and Latin
American music. Then there are alternative rock and reggae clubs with
live music and changing styles of music, sometimes theater shows too.
Thirdly, there are also purely techno and house discotheques, often in
the upper price range, and last but not least there are the traditional
"bailantas", in which only local variants of Latin American music
(especially cumbia and cuarteto) are played and the particularly
frequented by working-class youth.
You can only consume alcohol
in Argentina at the age of 18. However, there are special discotheques
for young people under 18, so-called matinés, which close earlier and in
which no alcohol is sold. The counterpart are the boliches para mayores,
where only visitors over a certain age (usually over 30) are admitted.
LGTB clubs only exist in the biggest cities; however, in small
cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, there is usually at least one
gay-friendly club where a mixed gay-heterosexual crowd goes out, this is
often the case with clubs with electronic music. In smaller places
(exception: well-known tourist places), however, the intolerance against
gays, which is widespread among the rural population, is often a
problem.
In Argentina there are several types of accommodation besides regular
hotels. Hosterías are mostly larger country hotels with a garden and
often with a swimming pool, but less comfort than in normal hotels,
whereby the two names hotel and hostería overlap a bit and the prices
hardly differ. Hotels and hosterías are categorized with stars (one to
five stars) that provide information about price and services and
roughly correspond to the international "star categories" - one star is
considered simple accommodation, two stars as middle class, three stars
upper middle class, four stars upper class and five stars luxury class.
Residenciales and Hospedajes are small, rather basic hotels; the
bathroom often has to be shared here. They are divided into categories
"A" and "B", with the B residenciales often only offering the bare
essentials, e.g. B. No TV. Albergues and hosteles are comparable to
youth hostels and hostels respectively, but accommodate guests of all
ages. In addition to rooms, you can also rent single beds in them. These
multi-bed rooms are often very cramped, but the operators often speak
foreign languages and there are usually lockers for valuables. Hotel
prices are still quite cheap compared to Europe, with the exception of
the top price range.
It should be noted that love hotels are also
referred to as "hotel". They are usually recognizable by their lighting
(red-pink), their name and the addition "albergue transistorio" or
"hotel alojamiento".
In some Argentinian cities, especially on
busy highways, there are also motels based on the US model, where you
can drive to your bedroom.
There are plenty of campsites
in Argentina, almost every village has a campsite somewhere. There are
two price systems: either you pay per person and per tent or car (the
normal case) or you pay a flat rate for a parcel (parcela), the latter
system being particularly common in large tourist resorts. The price of
a pitch mostly depends more on its location than on its comfort. Camping
Municipal are usually very inexpensive campsites that are managed by the
respective municipality. With the exception of the high-price pitches in
the tourist areas, the equipment on the campsites cannot be compared
with Europe; many campgrounds in remote areas offer only minimal
amenities (e.g. no hot water) and are sometimes completely shadeless. On
the other hand, these courses in particular are often located in very
idyllic natural landscapes and only cost minimal fees.
Free
camping is actually only allowed where it is expressly stated -
especially in nature and national parks, where there are almost always
small camping areas. In practice, however, this prohibition is almost
never observed in remote areas. If an area is clearly identifiable as
private property (e.g. by a fence or a house), you should always ask the
owner for permission to camp and also to enter the area - otherwise you
risk being mistaken for a thief or tramp! You can also often camp at
petrol stations, some even have showers, since long-distance drivers
also spend the night there.
A warning: In many areas, especially
in central and western Argentina, the risk of forest fires is very high.
You should therefore be careful when making a fire and observe the
relevant prohibitions. Tens of thousands of hectares of forest and
bushland burn down every year, a large part of which is caused by
careless campers and grillers.
Many Argentinian universities have cooperation programs with German
universities. Detailed information can be found on the website of the
German Academic Exchange Service and on the websites of the respective
universities themselves. You can get any degree you want in Argentina
with a student visa, but not at all universities (especially smaller
universities do not accept foreigners).
Important universities
are the Universidad de Buenos Aires (UBA), the Universidad Nacional de
Córdoba (UNC) and the Universidad Nacional de La Plata (UNLP); as is the
nationwide Universidad Tecnológica Nacional (UTN). There are also many
private universities, but they have a dubious reputation for being
impossible to fail an exam at. The Universidad Católica, which has
branches in several cities in Argentina and is comparable in quality to
the state universities, is usually rated the best. However, it is
considered to be very conservative in the treatment of students.
Student exchange programs also exist in many Argentinian cities.
Spanish language courses in Argentina have become very popular,
especially after 2002. There are facilities for learning Spanish mainly
in the metropolises of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario and Mendoza, but
also in some smaller cities. Some courses also include internships.
Despite the sensationalist media reports, crime in Argentina is not
that much higher than in Europe, for example, and the murder rate has
even been falling since the turn of the millennium (according to the
Ministry of Justice it was 9.2 in 2002 and 5.8 in 2008 per 100,000
inhabitants). However, almost all cities have "red zones" where muggings
are common; these are often poorer neighborhoods and slums (known as
villas miserias). If you have to, you should only visit such quarters
with a companion, preferably with a goal and only during the day. The
best thing to do is to ask the locals, as the focus of crime often
changes. In contrast to many Latin American countries, however, the
areas around the bus stations are almost always safe (exception: Villa
31 in Buenos Aires, which you do not have to cross when going to the bus
station). In small towns you don't have to worry about your belongings -
the locals even leave their expensive mountain bikes without a lock!
Tips:
Pickpockets take advantage of crowded buses and subways.
Valuables (smartphones and digital cameras, for example, are very
popular) should therefore not be packed in the outer pockets of the
backpack or in the back of your trousers. In such situations, backpacks
are often carried with a strap on the chest.
Watches, jewelery and
cameras can be carried in city centers without any problems - provided
you are careful about pickpockets - but only if they are not valuable
objects in poorer suburbs.
Groups of young people who are
conspicuously hiding on the outskirts of large cities (e.g. behind trees
or in bushes) should always be avoided, as these are often petty
criminals who attack passers-by for a few pesos. Since not all of them
have firearms, small and frail individuals are at greater risk of being
mugged. In principle, one should never defend oneself.
Hotels are
mostly safe, but there is a general security problem at campsites in
major tourist centers, as these are sometimes poorly cordoned off. It's
a good idea to lock the tent with a small suitcase lock (most locals do
the same) and leave valuables with the site management or in a
guardaequipaje (luggage storage service, found mainly at bus stations).
These services can be trusted in the vast majority of cases. There are
also lockers at some bus stations.
Credit cards and larger amounts of
money should be carried on the skin and appropriate bags should be
bought. These are rarely discovered even during a raid.
If you are
traveling in more dangerous areas, you should have a small amount of
money (equivalent to around 10 US dollars) with you in order to be able
to "offer something" to the thieves in the event of an attack -
otherwise they can become very aggressive, even murders are nice because
of this happened. The size of this amount depends on the appearance.
There are no particular health risks in most of Argentina. In the
north, isolated tropical diseases have appeared, particularly in the
jungle areas of Misiones, Tucumán and Salta, with dengue fever being the
most common. There is also a purely theoretical risk of contracting
malaria in these areas, but in practice this disease only occurs very
rarely and prophylaxis is only necessary if you stay in remote areas in
the wild for a long time ( e.g. on longer trekking tours in the jungle
areas). In Argentina, with an HIV prevalence of 0.6%, AIDS is about as
widespread as in the USA. People who have frequent informal, unprotected
sex contacts are particularly at risk, as are visitors to brothels,
whose hygienic standards are usually miserable, also because they live
in a working in a legal gray area (prostitution is officially illegal
and disguised as "dating" in special bars).
Eating and drinking
can almost always be enjoyed without any problems. Caution with
sensitive stomachs is advised with extremely cheap offers, especially in
tenedor libre restaurants (see above) and stands on the street. But you
have to be particularly unlucky to get food poisoning in such cases.
Hospitals and doctors are common in cities. In public hospitals,
which are free of charge, long waiting times for treatment are often the
norm. Therefore, should the z. B. can afford through a travel insurance,
prefer a private clinic, also to keep the state hospitals free for those
who depend on them. If possible, complex treatments, such as rare
diseases, should be carried out in Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Rosario or
Mendoza.
Argentina shares a wide variety of climate zones. The best travel
time varies depending on the area: in Patagonia the summer months, in
the center (Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Córdoba, Mendoza) spring and autumn
and in the north the dry winter months (summer is very humid there). All
major cities can get stiflingly hot in midsummer, and they're dead in
January when many people go on vacation.
In the Pampa region
(e.g. Buenos Aires) and Mesopotamia, the climate is temperate to
subtropical and humid all year round. Summers are muggy (average highs
28°C in Buenos Aires and around 33°C in Misiones) and winters are cool
to mild (15°C in Buenos Aires, around 22°C in Misiones). The weather
character alternates between longer periods of sunshine and cloudy rainy
weather, which can sometimes last for several days. The rains are often
very intense. Strong winds are also common.
Central and
north-west Argentina (e.g. Córdoba, Mendoza and Tucumán), the Sierras
Pampeanas and the Chaco are very dry in the winter months. Summers are
hot and relatively humid (average high temperature 32°C in Cordoba,
sweltering 37°C in Formosa) and winters are dry and mild (19°C in
Cordoba, 24°C in Formosa). The rainiest months are November and
December. The driest area of the region is the Puna with only 80 - 300
mm of rainfall a year, while the subtropical jungles in Tucumán get up
to 1,200 mm, and still often experience periods of drought in winter.
Patagonia is dry all year round, with slightly more rain in winter
than in summer. Exceptions are the southern Andes and southern Tierra
del Fuego, which are significantly wetter all year round. Temperatures
are generally mild throughout the year, but vary widely between north
and south. San Antonio Oeste has an average maximum temperature of 32 °C
in summer, in Comodoro Rivadavia it is 25 °C and in Ushuaia only 15 °C.
In winter, the difference is somewhat smaller, with San Antonio and
Comodoro Rivadavia reaching 12 °C, Ushuaia still 3 °C.
Behaviors are generally quite similar to those in Europe,
particularly in the Mediterranean.
Dress and Appearance: Many
Argentines attach great importance to their dress and appearance in
general, especially when going out and especially when dining in fine
restaurants. In everyday life, too, you should make sure that you look
reasonably well-groomed - otherwise you will be put in a corner with
vagabonds and hippies, who are particularly noticeable among older
Argentines. And: The young, alternative Argentinians also value what
they wear, women in particular pay great attention to figure-hugging
clothing. The cliché that used to be common in Argentina that you should
only go into the city center in smart clothes no longer applies today -
shorts can also be found in city centers.
Behaviour: Many Argentines
always try to remain nice and friendly to those around them just to look
good - even if they don't really interest them. For example, as a
foreigner in a pub, you can be sure that many people will invite you to
the "Asado" - and then you're surprised if the person concerned doesn't
even remember his name the next day. Or: You ask for directions on the
street and are surprised that although the person addressed seemed to
know everything perfectly, the information was wrong. This can be
misunderstood as superficiality by foreigners, but it is part of
Argentine culture and also contributes to a pleasant atmosphere. You
shouldn't necessarily believe everything you're told. Nevertheless,
profound conversations are possible in the circle of friends even after
a short time, as soon as trust has been established.
Queuing and
drawing numbers: Central Europeans, who expect a "hot-blooded
temperament" from Argentines, might find the discipline with which
Argentines queue up on many occasions strange. Even at bus and train
stops there are markers behind which you line up. On the other hand,
people never try to push oneself in such a queue - it is considered
extremely impolite, not even young people do it (the exception is
discotheques, where pushes can definitely occur). In almost all
authorities, but also in shops, it is customary to draw a number, which
is then announced either on a display board or by calling out. Only: In
order to get the number, you often have to stand in line first...
Ladies First: Ladies First is still strictly enforced throughout the
country. It is common on buses, subways, etc. to offer the seat,
especially to older women. Women, especially mothers with young
children, are also often let in front of men in queues, at elevators and
when boarding public transport.
Eating and drinking: Although you go
to a good restaurant in smart clothes, there is only a dress code in a
few very exclusive restaurants. Eating on the street and on the bus is
quite uncommon and considered rude by older Argentines, although it
seems to be becoming more common among young people. Of course, this
does not apply to long-distance buses, where they often even serve a
little something. Almost all of Argentina, except for a few small towns,
prohibits the consumption of alcohol in public. However, the enforcement
of this ban varies, in parks or on the beach, for example, the law
enforcement officers do not take it as seriously as on the street.
However, if you are found drunk in public, you can be almost certain
that the police will take care of you. There are often police checks at
night, especially at nightlife hotspots, during which drunk people, but
unfortunately sometimes also uninvolved passers-by, are put in a drunk
tank for a few hours. It is best to avoid these controls. In most
cities, including Buenos Aires and Córdoba, there are alcohol sales
curfews (for kiosks and shops usually 11:00 p.m. or 12:00 a.m., for bars
and discos 5:00 a.m. or 6:00 a.m.). However, these laws are not always
respected.
Viveza Criolla: One of the "Argentinian virtues" often
criticized in the media is the so-called viveza criolla, "native
cunning". What is meant is the alleged habit of the Argentines to get
all sorts of advantages through trickery and to cheat the ignorant. For
example, if foreigners charge a higher price for a good or service than
local residents, or if change is given in a taxi in a currency that has
long been out of use (e.g. Australes). Although such rip-offs are not
generally to be expected, they can certainly occur. Perhaps it is
therefore advantageous to find out about the usual prices first,
especially if you are planning a larger investment, such as buying a car
or house.
Partnership and sexuality: In terms of heterosexual
partnerships, Argentina is now almost as liberal as in Europe - you can
usually show your romantic feelings in public anywhere. At most, in
rural, remote areas, kissing that is too wild still meets with
rejection. Having sex in public is a criminal offense everywhere,
though, so if you must, make sure no one is watching. There are a large
number of love hotels (hotel alojamiento / albergue transistorio,
colloquially telo). An Argentinian specialty are the so-called villa
cariño, mostly secluded but safe streets where a large number of couples
meet in their cars and you can sometimes even order food and drinks to
the car.
Information for gays and lesbians: When it comes to
homosexuality and LGTB, the country is unfortunately not quite as
tolerant as Central Europe, even though conditions have improved
significantly after democratization in 1983 and especially since the
centre-left government took office in 2003 have. However, public
kissing, especially between two men, can still be considered a public
nuisance and can take a few hours to the police station. Since
Argentinian women are generally quite at ease with each other, lesbian
couples have it easier than men. Gays also often risk malicious ridicule
from traditionally macho-oriented Argentines. Basically, the big cities,
but also tourist resorts, are more liberal than small towns and
villages. In contrast, in the trendy districts of Buenos Aires
(especially Palermo and Recoleta), Córdoba (Güemes and Nueva Córdoba)
and Rosario as well as in the large cities of Patagonia, homosexuality
can also be lived out in public without any problems. In every big city
there are still institutions such as cultural and political
associations, media and fanzines, bars and clubs for homosexuals that
actively defend themselves against discrimination and do lobbying.
Nude bathing: Nude bathing and nudism in general is prohibited outside
of marked areas and can be prosecuted as an administrative offence.
Sometimes you get a warning even for publicly moving. But as everywhere,
the rule here is "where there is no plaintiff, there is no judge", and
in view of the many secluded lakes and beaches, nude bathers can also
get their money's worth. There are also a few naturist beaches and
naturist camps (campamento nudista or campamento naturista), see the Ser
Nudista page for a list of organized naturist areas. While topless is
tolerated, it often attracts onlookers and can draw derisive comments,
as Argentinian women are quite prudish in this regard. But don't be
afraid of American conditions, especially when it comes to small
children - if they run around naked on the beach, nobody cares.
Topics of Conversation: Due to the conflict over the Falkland Islands or
the Falklands War of 1982, it is best to avoid talking about these
topics and Britain in general. The Argentines don't speak of the
"Falklands" either, but of the "Malvinas". These are very sensitive
issues for many Argentines and can trigger a strong reaction and create
an uncomfortable situation for you. Wearing British symbols (e.g. flags
or football shirts) should also be avoided. Although there are no
documented abuses in this regard, locals can get very upset and you may
receive icy looks and treatment from the populace. In addition, one
should avoid talking about the earlier times under the Peróns, the
military dictatorship, the topics of politics, corruption and religion.
These are sensitive issues for many Argentines and can also cause a
strong reaction. Comparing Argentina to its neighbors Brazil and Chile
should also be avoided as they are seen as competitors primarily in the
economic sphere. Historical conflicts also play a role here.
With the exception of very remote areas, the communication network in Argentina is very well developed and can be compared to Europe.
Many Argentines now have smartphones and, to a lesser extent,
landlines, even in remote areas. Public telecentros with telephone
booths and often also fax and internet connections have become
increasingly rare since around 2010. The same applies to public
telephones (rarely "cells"). It should be noted that long-distance calls
and international calls via the telephone network are significantly more
expensive than in Europe, which is why messaging apps are now used
almost exclusively for this purpose.
There are mobile phone
antennas in almost every town. The most common standard is (as of 2022)
LTE (4G), but in remote regions there is sometimes only GSM or Edge
(2G). 5G is increasingly being expanded in large cities and tourist
locations. Mobile phone companies are Movistar (Telefónica Group),
Personal (Telecom) and Claro (América Móviles). The previously frequent
incompatibilities with networks and devices have mostly no longer
existed since the 3G era.
When calling an Argentinian mobile
phone from abroad, a "9" is appended to the country code 0054, followed
by the city code (without the 0) and the phone number (without the 15 at
the beginning). E.g. call to Buenos Aires: 0054-9-11-XXXX XXXX. This
does not apply to calls to Argentinian landlines.
Note: In the
years 2011/2012 numerous area codes changed, also in larger cities. So
it can happen that z. B. old area codes can still be found on the
Internet. With the mobile phone number * 120 (asterisk-120) or * 611
(Nextel) you can inquire about the new numbers.
As
early as the mid-1990s, the internet was used by many Argentines in big
cities - today the web is ubiquitous. DSL, cable modem and wireless
services are available in all cities, in some large cities also FTTH,
dial-up services are now only relevant in remote areas.
Internet
cafés (cibercafé or cíber) were widespread in the late 1990s and up
until around 2007, but today many Argentines have a fixed or mobile
connection. Nevertheless, even in small towns you can almost always find
a place where you can connect to the network without your own device,
often in larger kiosks or switchboards.
WLAN zones (WiFi) are
common and can be found in most hotels, restaurants and cafes. In many
cities and even smaller towns there are government-sponsored free WiFi
zones, but some services such as file sharing are blocked.
There are several postal companies in Argentina, the largest is the
ex-monopolist Correo Argentino, there are also OCA, Andreani and UPS and
DHL for parcel shipping.
Really valuable shipments to Argentina
should not be sent with the Correo Argentino (also not with Deutsche
Post or DHL), but with UPS and similar services, the theft or loss of
the entire package has often occurred. It should be noted that valuable
shipments are subject to customs duties.
Domestic shipping, on
the other hand, is relatively safe. Here is the cheap and safe
alternative of the encomienda; the package is handed over to a bus
company (usually at the local bus station). The recipient must then also
pick it up at the bus station upon presentation of the ID. Of course,
this is only possible if the route is served by a bus line. Another
possibility are comisionistas, small entrepreneurs who transport mail on
certain routes in their own car. They are often more flexible than the
bus companies, deliver directly to the recipient and are hardly more
expensive. Since you have to trust these service providers, you should
seek advice from locals.
The name of the country, "Argentina", is derived from the Latin word
lat. argentum ("silver"), which in turn comes from the Greek ἀργήντος
(argentos), earlier ἀργήεις, which meant "white", "shining". Αργεντινός
(argentinos) is a Greek adjective meaning "silver". The name arose after
Sebastian Cabot picked up Juan Diaz de Solis left by the expedition on
the shores of Francisco del Puerto, who told Cabot about the "White
King" and the Silver Mountains located north of La Plata. Cabot believed
the legend and, leaving the original plan to explore navigation on the
way to the Moluccas, found by the Magellan-Elcano expedition, went in
search of silver. But the information turned out to be false - there are
no deposits of valuable metals in the La Plata basin (rather, the legend
spoke about the Inca Empire), but the rumor about silver was the reason
why the country was named "Argentina".
The first use of the name
Argentina can be attributed to the 1602 poem "Argentina and the conquest
of the Rio de la Plata" (Spanish: La Argentina y conquista del Río de la
Plata) by Martin del Barco Centenera. Although this name for the region
was already in common use by the 18th century, in 1776 the country was
officially named the Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata. The independent
government formed after the May Revolution of 1810 replaced the name
"viceroyalty" with "United Provinces".
The name "Argentina"
became famous after its use in the first Argentine anthem of 1813, which
had many references to the ongoing Argentine War of Independence. The
first official name of the Argentine Republic was recorded in the
constitution of 1826. After the return to the confederation of the
province of Buenos Aires in 1859, the name of the country was changed to
the Argentine Nation. The name Argentine Republic was returned after the
adoption of the law of October 8, 1860 and remains to this day.
The pre-Hispanic history of Argentina refers to the local cultural
developments of the current territory of the Argentine Republic prior to
the conquest and colonization by Spain.
The first population
record of the territory currently controlled by Argentina is located in
Piedra Museo (Santa Cruz) and dates back to 11,000 BC. Together with the
deposits of Monte Verde (Chile) and Pedra Furada (Brazil), they
constitute, to date, the oldest settlement sites found in South America.
These deposits support the theory of the early settlement of America
(pre-Clovis). Nearby, it is also possible to see the paintings of manos
and guanacos stamped in 7300 BC in the Cueva de las Manos (Pinturas
River, Santa Cruz province). By the year 9000 BC. the settlement of the
Pampas had already begun, while the northwestern area of the country
began to be inhabited around 7000 BC.
Towards the 13.er or 12.°
millennium AP human presence is registered in the Awnings and Stone
Museum. Among the original peoples, hunters and gatherers inhabited
Patagonia, the Pampas region and the Gran Chaco. The farmers settled in
the northwest, Cuyo, the sierras of Córdoba and later in Mesopotamia.
Tastil, in the northwest, was the largest pre-Columbian city located in
the current Argentine territory, with a population of 2000 inhabitants.
The first traces of human life in this territory correspond to
peoples of a Paleolithic cultural level that three thousand years ago
incorporated the first Mesolithic and Neolithic cultural contributions.
Until the time of the European conquest and colonization, the Argentine
territory has been occupied by various native peoples, with different
social organizations that can be divided into three main groups:
Hunters and gatherers of basic food oceanic canoeists, such as the
Yaganes or yámana and the haush in Tierra del Fuego and the Fuegian
canals. Hunters and gatherers, who inhabited Patagonia, the Pampas and
the Chaco.
Advanced hunters and food gatherers such as the pampids,
in the central-east: hets in the prairies and steppes of the Pampas and
north Patagonian region; and chonks in Patagonia ― invaded since the
eighteenth century by the Mapuche potters from the cordilleran area of
Patagonia ― and the Qom and wichi in the Chaco region. The charruas and
minuans, who had incorporated ceramics, also belong to this group.
Farmers with ceramics such as the Guarani and Andean and derived
cultures. From the second millennium, the Avá (an Amazonian people known
since the seventeenth century by the Spaniards as "Guaraníes") invaded
the NEA and the Coastal Region; they were cultivators of cassava and
avaty or maize in the form of roza (cutting and burning of forests) and
therefore semi-sedentary. The cultures centered on agriculture and
livestock farming of the north were purely sedentary, and had developed
commercial networks encompassed in the set currently called "Quechua";
after establishing a quasi-state system around local manors, they were
subdued by the Inca Empire around the year 1480. Influenced by these
Andean cultures, other peoples such as the Diaguitas, Calchaquies and
Huarpes developed a less developed agriculture and livestock, adapted to
the conditions of the flat and mountainous regions of the center of
present-day Argentina and of Cuyo.
In the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, the Inca Empire conquered part of the current
provinces of Jujuy, Salta, Catamarca, the extreme west of the province
of Tucumán, the western part of the provinces of La Rioja and San Juan,
the northwest of the province of Mendoza and, probably, the north of
Santiago del Estero, incorporating their territories to the Collasuyo,
which was the southern part of the Tahuantinsuyo or regions of such
empire.
Traditionally, the conquest is attributed to the Inca
monarch Túpac Yupanqui. Several lordships of the region, such as the
Quechuas, the likanantai (atacamas), the huarpes, the Diaguitas and
others, tried to resist, but the Incas managed to dominate them,
transferring to their territories the mitimaes or deported settlers of
the Chicha tribes, who lived in what is the southwest of the current
Bolivian territory. Others, such as the Sanavirones, the Lule-tonocoté
and the Henia-kâmîare (popularly called "comechingones"), successfully
resisted the Inca invasion and remained as independent lordships.
They created agricultural and textile centers, settlements (collcas
and tambos), roads (the "Inca trail"), fortresses (pucarás) and high
mountain sanctuaries. Some of the main ones are the pucara de Tilcara,
the tamberia del Inca, the pucara de Aconquija, the Llullaillaco
sanctuary, the shincal de Londres and the ruins of Quilmes.
The Spanish conquest and colonization of Argentina refers to the
period between the sixteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth
century in which a part of the current territory of Argentina was
conquered and colonized by the Spanish Empire. In this period the
expression Argentina (país de la plata) appears for the first time to
denote an area without defined limits that extended from the Río de la
Plata to the northwest. The period also includes the arrival of
Spaniards for the first time to several areas of the current Argentine
territory, at which time in many cases they adopted the name with which
the indigenous peoples already called that region and in others they
designated them with new names.
The colonial era in Argentina is
usually divided into three periods: the discovery and conquest, during
which the explorations of the territory and the foundation of the major
cities were carried out; the period of the governorates, during which
the Spanish settlements fought against the indigenous populations and
tried to consolidate, registering few territorial and economic changes;
and the viceregal period that extends until the May Revolution of 1810,
in which the Spanish viceroy was expelled and a self-governing junta was
appointed. The Argentine War of Independence is already usually cited as
part of the history of Argentina.
Europeans arrived for the first
time to the current Argentine territory in 1516, with the expedition of
Juan Díaz de Solís along the Río de la Plata. Later, the expedition of
Ferdinand Magellan in 1520 anchored its ships in the Bay of San Julian,
today the province of Santa Cruz. The fort Sancti Spiritus was the first
European settlement, installed in 1527 on the banks of the Paraná River.
The first exploration of the northwest and center of the country was the
entry of Diego de Rojas in 1543. The cities of Asunción (1537), k
Santiago del Estero (1553), Córdoba (1573) and Buenos Aires (1536/1580)
were the bases of the colonial establishment that was imposed in the
northern half of the current Argentine territory, subject to the
authority of the Spanish Crown (the Governorate of the Río de la Plata).
The Spanish Empire founded several cities and imposed a colonial rule
over the population that inhabited a series of regions that roughly
correspond to the fourteen provinces that were confederated in 1860 to
form the Argentine Republic. At the end of the colonial period, the
Spanish Empire created the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, which
included the fourteen aforementioned provinces and the territories of
the current republics of Bolivia, Paraguay and Uruguay.
Due to
the Bull of Pope Paul III Sublimis Deus of 1537, the indigenous people
were declared men with all the effects and capacities of Christians. In
the Spanish Empire, social unity was conceived through the unity of the
faith of the Catholic Church. In the first century of colonization, the
Spanish Empire conquered approximately a third of the current Argentine
territory, subjugating the original peoples who inhabited it and
producing a demographic catastrophe, which is why the European
conquerors introduced kidnapped slaves to black Africa. In the
seventeenth century the Jesuit Guarani missions were established,
missionary communities founded by the Society of Jesus among the Guarani
and related peoples, whose purpose was to evangelize and prevent the
enslavement of the indigenous people of the current provinces of
Misiones, Corrientes and part of Paraguay and Brazil. They successfully
fulfilled their task, until in the year 1768, the Spanish King Carlos
III ordered to expel the Jesuits.
A large part of the current
territory of Argentina and the indigenous peoples who inhabited it was
not under the colonial rule of Spain, mainly the Chaco regions
—including parts of Santiago Del Estero, and Santa Fe— remained under
the rule of indigenous people of the Wichi, guaycuru and vilelas groups,
while most of the Pampas, with the exception of parts of the humid
Pampas, Patagonia remained under tehuelche, puelche and, later, Mapuche
rule. Between 1560 and 1667, the Diaguita manors maintained a long
resistance known as the Calchaquí wars in the current Argentine
northwest, before being completely absorbed by the Creole population.
During most of the colonial period, the Argentine territory was part
of the Viceroyalty of Peru, until in 1776 King Carlos III of Spain
created with part of his territory the Viceroyalty of the Río de la
Plata. The city of Buenos Aires was designated as its capital due to its
growing importance as a commercial center and with the idea of better
resisting an eventual Portuguese attack, as well as to have easier
access to Spain through Atlantic navigation.
In the eighteenth
century the natural multiplication of cattle and bighorn horses in the
Pampas plains, the Eastern Band of the Rio de la Plata and southern
Brazil, caused the appearance of a special type of independent peasant
on horseback called gaucho —in the case of men — and China —in the case
of women. The Gauchos developed a culture with their own
characteristics, joined and would fight in the War of Independence and
confronted the ranchers to guarantee their right to access livestock and
land, until being defeated in the second half of the nineteenth century.
This wealth in wild cattle also led to the appearance of indigenous
people of equestrian tradition in the Chaco, the Pampas and Patagonia,
who engaged in a dynamic of intermittent struggle for livestock
resources with the Spanish and Creole population.
Until the
mid-nineteenth century, much of Patagonia and the Pampas remained under
the control of different indigenous peoples: mainly, Chonks and then
also the Mapuches in Patagonia and Ranqueles in the Pampas plain until
the last quarter of the nineteenth century. Likewise, the territories of
a large part of the Chaco region were not colonized by Europeans, except
for parts of Santiago Del Estero and Santa Fe, but remained inhabited by
indigenous peoples such as the Qoms, moqoits (mocovís or, mocovíes),
pilagás, vilelas, lules and wichis until the early twentieth century.
The sedentary indigenous population was subjected to relations of
permanent dependence on the Spanish population. Although over the
generations an ethnically identifiable "Creole" population was absorbed
into it, this process of miscegenation was not total, as evidenced by
the participation of populations from the Northwest of the current
Argentine territory in the great indigenous uprising of 1780 with its
epicenter in Cuzco, led by the Inca Túpac Amaru II.
In the history of Argentina, the Period of Independence is known as
the one between the May Revolution of 1810 and the Anarchy that
dissolved all the national authorities, in the year 1820.
During
this period, the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata - the initial
name of the current Argentine Republic - began their existence as a
sovereign country, successfully sustained it through a prolonged War of
Independence and declared their independence. But also during this
period they failed to give themselves a central government and a
constitution that would be accepted by all their provinces on a
permanent basis.
It was also during this period that several
territories that had been part of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata
were definitively separated from Argentina: Paraguay, for having
supported its own independence process; Upper Peru, for continuing under
Spanish power, from which it would later become independent as the
Republic of Bolivia; and the Banda Oriental, for having fallen under the
power of Portugal, which would inherit it to Brazil, from which it would
become independent as the Oriental State of Uruguay. The legacy of the
Argentine War of independence is vast as it also inspired the
independence of Chile and the Philippines.
The beginning of the
period is established on May 25, 1810, the date of the creation of the
first government of the United Provinces, and the end on February 11,
1820, the day on which the last Supreme Director, José Rondeau resigned,
who was defeated in the Battle of Cepeda and the National Congress was
dissolved.
The First Government Junta, officially Provisional Government Junta
of the Provinces of the Río de la Plata in the name of Mr. Fernando VII
was the government Junta that arose on Friday, May 25, 1810 in Buenos
Aires, capital of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, as a result of
the triumph of the May Revolution that dismissed the Viceroy Baltasar
Hidalgo de Cisneros and appointed Cornelio Saavedra as the president of
the First Junta of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata. The seat
of government was set in the Fort of Buenos Aires, which had served
since 1776 as the residence of the viceroys and where the Government
House is located today. The First Junta existed as such until December
18 of the same year, since with the incorporation of deputies from the
interior it was transformed into the Junta Grande, which gave rise to
the prolonged War of Independence of the United Provinces of the Río de
la Plata against Spain (1810-1824).
While the War of independence
was unfolding, there was also a complex dispute over the form of
organization of the new state, which generated in 1814 the beginning of
a civil war that —intermittently — would last more than half a century.
The leader of the federal fraction, the Oriental José Gervasio Artigas
was proclaimed Protector of the Union of Free Peoples, a league of
provinces that refused to be administered by the unitary government of
Buenos Aires. It organized the so—called Congress of the East in
Concepción del Uruguay, which is still being discussed if it managed to
proclaim — as it proposed - independence from Spain.
On July 9,
1816, in the city of San Miguel de Tucumán, the congress of deputies of
the provinces of the northwest and center-west of the country and of
Buenos Aires, together with some exiled deputies from Upper Peru,
proclaimed the independence of the United Provinces in South America,
using the following formula:
[...] to recover the rights of which
they were deprived, and to invest themselves with the high character of
a free and independent nation of King Ferdinand VII, his successors and
metropolis [...]
In several parts of South America, the new
governments had to face the counterrevolutionary resistance of the
royalist armies, which were trying to restore the authority of the
Spanish monarchy in the region. The wars for independence began. Some of
the main commanders were Manuel Belgrano, commanding the Army of the
North, José de San Martín, creator of the Army of the Andes, Martín
Miguel de Güemes, organizer of the Gaucho war and Juana Azurduy,
commander of the guerrilla war in Upper Peru. The Argentine State
considers San Martín to be the greatest military hero of its
independence and honors him with the title of "Father of the
Fatherland". Together with Simón Bolívar, they were the most responsible
for the liberating deeds that ended the Spanish presence on the
continent.
The first decades as an independent country were conflictive: faced
with the hegemony of the Unitarians, the federalists repeatedly rose up
in defense of the autonomy of the provinces, leading —after the
so—called Anarchy of the Twentieth Year — to the division of the country
into autonomous provinces governed generally by military caudillos,
while the country — except for a brief interval between 1825 and 1827-
lacked a national government until 1852. Each province assumed the
fullness of government within the scope of its territory.
The War
of independence continued until 1825, but it was fought preferably on
the northern border and in Peru. Meanwhile, the Oriental Province was
invaded by the Kingdom of Portugal, from whom it passed to the Empire of
Brazil. The consequent Brazilian War culminated with the Preliminary
Peace Convention of 1828, which declared the disputed territory
independent, with the name of the Oriental State of Uruguay. Shortly
before, in 1825, Upper Peru formed the Republic of Bolivia and the
following year the city of Tarija and its jurisdiction were added to it.
The remaining territory - which had managed to increase its
territorial control somewhat with some successful military campaigns
against the indians - began to use the name "Argentina" officially in
the mid-1820s. The official name "United Provinces of the Río de la
Plata" continues to be considered, constitutionally, an alternative name
for the country, although it has fallen into practical disuse.
In
the early 1830s, the federals managed to triumph throughout the country,
which adopted the name of the Argentine Confederation. For more than
twenty years, the federal governor of Buenos Aires, Juan Manuel de
Rosas, assumed in fact the highest national authority, although in
theory he was only the depositary of the external representation of all
the provinces.
During the time of its hegemony, it fought and
defeated successive uprisings of the Unitarians, a blockade of the Río
de la Plata by France and then another joint blockade by Great Britain
and France. He also maintained military conflicts against the
Peru-Bolivian Confederation and against the so—called Government of the
Defense of Montevideo, the Uruguayan capital, due to the interference of
the two parties of that country — whites and colorados - in the
Argentine civil wars.
Despite the peace he was able to impose and
the economic growth — at least of the coastal provinces — Rosas' enemies
demanded individual, political and expression freedoms, which were
firmly annulled by the Buenos Aires governor; the core of their demands
was the sanction of a political constitution that formally organized the
national state and guaranteed the rights of citizens.
In 1852, Rosas was defeated in the Battle of Caseros by the Big Army,
an alliance between the provinces of Entre Ríos and Corrientes, the red
troops of Uruguay and others of Brazil. The alliance was headed by the
anti-Russian federal Justo José de Urquiza, governor of Entre Ríos, who
assumed the provisional presidency.
This period lasted until the
adoption of a Constitution in 1853, which with some changes has governed
the country until today. It adopted a federal regime, but the province
of Buenos Aires separated from the Argentine Confederation, which had to
establish its capital in the city of Paraná. In 1859, the Confederation
defeated Buenos Aires at the Battle of Cepeda, forcing it to sign the
Pact of San José de Flores, by which Buenos Aires rejoined what has
since been renamed the Argentine Republic. However, the definitive
reunification was achieved under the direction of Buenos Aires after the
Battle of Pavón (1861), during the presidency of Bartolomé Mitre.
In 1865, Argentina became involved again in a civil war in Uruguay,
to which Paraguay responded by occupying the city of Corrientes. After
signing a Triple Alliance with Brazil and Uruguay, Argentina took part
in the War of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay, which lasted five
years and required the participation of ten thousand Argentine
soldiers. Paraguay was finally defeated in 1870, leaving a large part
of its male population totally devastated and dead. Despite its
enormous economic and human cost and the fact that it was the cause of
the continuation of the civil wars in Argentina, this country managed to
consolidate its limits in the northeast, since the border was set at the
Pilcomayo, Paraguay and Paraná rivers.
During the presidencies of
Mitre and especially of Sarmiento and Avellaneda, Argentina was inserted
into the world economy as an agro-exporting country, supported by an
extensive railway network and the advancement of the educational system.
After two bloody revolutions in 1874 and 1880, in the latter year the
city of Buenos Aires was federalized and a lasting balance was
established between the provinces and the capital.
Between 1878 and 1884 the so-called Conquest of the Desert and the
Chaco took place, in order to put an end to the constant clashes between
indigenous and Creoles on the border and appropriate the indigenous
territories, tripling the Argentine territory. The first conquest,
driven by Julio A. Roca, consisted of a series of military incursions
into the Pampean and Patagonian territories dominated by the native
peoples, distributing them among the members of Rural Society,
financiers of the expeditions. The conquest of the Chaco lasted until
the end of the century, since its full incorporation into the national
economic system only took place when the mere extraction of woods and
tannin was replaced by the production of cotton. The Argentine
government considered the indigenous as inferior beings, without the
same rights as the Creoles and Europeans.
Between 1880 and 1916,
the National Autonomist Party (PAN) monopolized power on the basis of
fraudulent elections, facilitated by the system of the sung vote and for
25 years, the excluding figure was General Julio Argentino Roca. The
so-called Conservative Republic or Oligarchic Republic organized a
successful and Moderna agro-export model based on the so-called
international division of labor imposed by the British Empire, oriented
mainly to the production of meat and grains destined to the British
market. In the traditional story the country was seen at that time as
"the granary of the world".
This economic model generated a
concentration of wealth in a few hands and the social exclusion of the
working classes and the populations settled outside the Pampas region.
The economy reached high levels of growth that attracted a large
immigration flow mainly constituted by millions of Italians and
Spaniards and to a lesser extent followed by eastern Europeans and
Western Asians. The Argentine population, which represented 0.13% of the
world population in 1869, would become 0.55% in 1930, a proportion in
which, approximately, it would stabilize since then.
The
prosperity of the economy boosted the growth of a considerable middle
class, made up mostly of immigrants or their descendants. European
immigrants also introduced new political ideas such as socialism and
anarchism to the country, as well as participated together with the
local population, especially the Afro-Argentine, in the creation of
mutual aid organizations and trade unions. Modern political parties
such as the Radical Civic Union (UCR Moderna) and the Socialist Party
(PS) emerged.
After more than two decades of political and social
conflicts, electoral fraud and serious acts of repression, the Sáenz
Peña Law was enacted in 1912, which established secret, compulsory and
universal suffrage for male voters. In the first presidential election
with secret suffrage, the conservatives were displaced from power by the
radicals led by Hipólito Yrigoyen, who was president between 1916 and
1922, and between 1928 and 1930. During his first government, the
student movement known as the university reform was initiated, which
spread throughout Latin America and the workers' massacres of the Tragic
Week and the rebellious Patagonia took place. Between both Yrigoyen
governments, the also radical Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear was elected
president.
Infamous, History of Argentina between 1943 and 1963 and History of
Argentina between 1963 and 1983.
On September 6, 1930, the first of a
series of coups d'état took place in Argentina that led a civic-military
group to establish a dictatorship justified by the Supreme Court as a
"de facto government", after overthrowing Hipólito Yrigoyen. This coup
d'état initiated a sequel of fraudulent governments known as the
Infamous Decade.or
The Argentine agro-export model entered into
crisis due to the closure of international markets caused by the Crisis
of 1929. The country promoted an import substitution process that
developed a large industrial sector. The Infamous Decade was overthrown
by the Revolution of '43, a second coup d'état that installed a military
government within which there would be an alliance between unions and
some military that gave rise to Peronism. Despite the pressure of the
United States since this country entered the war at the end of 1941 when
it was attacked by Japan, Argentina remained neutral for most of the
rest of World War II, joining the Allies on March 27, 1945, during the
government of General Edelmiro Farrell, shortly before the end of the
War.
In 1946 Juan Domingo Perón was elected president with the
support of the unions organized in the Labor Party. Perón, accompanied
by his wife Evita, led a new movement that emphasized social justice,
political sovereignty and economic independence. Under his government,
women's suffrage was established in 1947, equality of men and women in
family law, equality of children born in or out of wedlock, free
university education, malaria was eradicated, etc.
Through the
Eva Perón Foundation, unprecedented social assistance was developed in
the country, providing economic support to the most vulnerable sectors.
Railways and foreign trade were also nationalized, and a strong
industrialization process was generated, promoting heavy industry.
In 1951 Perón was re-elected for a new presidential term with 63.40%
of the votes in what constituted the first election with universal
suffrage of men and women in Argentina. In 1952 Evita died. Almost 60
years later, she would be declared the Bicentennial Woman, as the symbol
of the prominence of women in Argentine history. Peronism had a wide
adherence of the population, but also with a strong rejection of the
opposition sectors, polarizing Argentine society into Peronist and
antiperonist. His policy harmed the British interests, dominant until
then in the economy, which supported the opponents. The beginning of a
conflict with the Catholic Church weakened the loyalty of vast sectors
to the government and unified the opposition.
On June 16, 1955, a
civic-military conspiracy, using about thirty Navy and Air Force planes,
bombed and strafed the population of Buenos Aires in the Plaza de Mayo
and other places. This attack produced 308 officially identified
victims - among them 111 trade union activists including 23 women -, a
number of deaths that could not be identified due to the mutilations and
more than 700 injured.
In September, Perón was overthrown by a
new coup called the Revolución Libertadora, which outlawed Peronism,
many of whose supporters were imprisoned or shot, which earned the coup
the nickname of "Revolución Fusiladora". Perón was forced into exile
until the end of the proscription in 1973.
During the
proscription, Peronism will continue to have influence in politics and
trade unionism — an area in which it won most of the elections —,
denying legitimacy to the authorities installed by non-democratic means
and developing an opposition activity known for the Peronist Resistance.
In 1958, Arturo Frondizi (UCRI) was elected president in elections
with the outlawed Peronism but after making an electoral pact with
Perón, being overthrown by a new military coup in 1962. The coup this
time had the particularity that power was assumed by the civilian José
María Guido, appointed president by the Supreme Court of Justice that
same day after the overthrow and arrest of Frondizi, claiming for his
appointment a power vacuum. Although Guido formally held the presidency,
the real material power lay in the military sphere. During his term of
office, the clashes between two factions of the Argentine Army, known as
Azules and Colorados, intensified, reaching armed confrontations. The
victory of the "blue" sector allowed General Juan Carlos Onganía to
reunify the Army.
With Peronism still outlawed and the former
President Frondizi arrested, in 1963 Arturo Umberto Illia (UCRP) was
elected as president, who would also be deposed by a military coup in
1966, which would take the government to Argentina.
His
dictatorship, the first of the three that made up the self-styled
Argentine Revolution (1966-1973), was also the first permanent
dictatorship installed within the framework of the military regimes that
multiplied in Latin America with active support from the United States
through the School of the Americas and the doctrine of national security
in the global framework of the Cold War. The abolition of political
activity and state terrorism provoked an insurrectional state of the
population that manifested itself in the appearance of several guerrilla
organizations — such as Montoneros, the FAR and the ERP — and a large
number of insurrectional villages, such as the Cordobazo, the Rosariazo
and the Tucumanazo, among others. Cornered by the popular insurrection,
the dictatorship organized an electoral exit with the participation of
Peronism - although preventing Perón's candidacy.
In 1973
Peronism was legalized and triumphed in the presidential elections,
giving rise to what has come to be called the third Peronism. After the
resignation of President Héctor José Cámpora, that same year, Juan
Domingo Perón was elected president for the third time, thus
precipitating his death nine months later. He was succeeded by his vice
president and wife, María Estela Martínez de Perón. This period was
characterized by an accelerated deterioration of the internal situation,
as a result of the 1973 oil crisis and widespread political violence,
including the organization by the government of a paramilitary force
called the Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (Triple A) that, together
with the police and military forces, murdered hundreds of opponents
since 1973 — several of them "disappeared detainees" — as well as the
installation of clandestine detention centers as part of the repression
ordered by the so-called annihilation decrees.
On March 24, 1976,
a new military coup took place that installed a new permanent
dictatorship called the National Reorganization Process, which would
last almost eight years and would be internationally coordinated with
the other South American dictatorships through the Condor Plan, under
the auspices of the United States. During the same period, a regime of
State terrorism was established that carried out a systematic plan of
kidnapping, torture and elimination of opponents, described by the
justice system as genocide, causing thousands of disappeared and
hundreds of children who suffered the suppression of their identity.
In response, human rights organizations were formed, such as the
Mothers of Plaza de Mayo and the Grandmothers of Plaza de Mayo, which
will play a crucial role in the "trial and punishment of the guilty" and
in the recovery of kidnapped babies whose identity had been suppressed.
The trade union movement also put up a strong resistance, going so far
as to declare several general strikes, despite the disappearances that
affected it massively, the dissolution of the CGT and the intervention
of the unions.
The dictatorship had active support from the main
business groups, occupying key functions of the government, as well as
the International Monetary Fund, multinational companies, the main press
outlets, along with prominent journalists and communicators. The
economic plan followed the guidelines of the Chicago School - often
identified with neoliberalism. An important sector of the population
supported the dictatorship, while another sector resisted it through
guerrilla action, the creation of human rights organizations such as the
Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, or trade union action and strikes.
The external debt, which will condition democratic governments from
1983, went from $7.7 billion in 1976 to $45 billion in 1983, in many
cases the result of criminal operations for the benefit of economic
groups and multinational companies. In 1978, there was a serious crisis
with Chile over the limits in the Beagle Channel zone, which brought
both countries to the brink of war. The Falklands War with the United
Kingdom took place in 1982; the Argentine defeat was one of the factors
that led to the collapse of the military regime and the call for general
elections for the following year.
The history of Argentina between 1983 and 2003 was marked by the
recovery of democracy in the year in which the period begins, the
prosecution of those guilty of human rights violations during the
previous dictatorship - a feature that distinguishes Argentine democracy
from the other recovered democracies in South America -, the external
debt crisis, the beginning of globalization, neoliberal reforms and the
severe economic recession that began in 1998 that ended with the
generalized crisis of 2001/2002, during which dozens of opponents were
killed, including the massacres of Plaza de Mayo on December 20, 2001
and Avellaneda. The period covers the first time in Argentina's history
of two continuous decades under a democratic regime and the first time
in which democratic presidents hand over power to democratically elected
successors of another political party.
The democratic government
was re-established on December 10, 1983. The new president was Raúl
Alfonsín, of the Radical Civic Union, who arranged to investigate the
crimes against humanity of the dictatorship by creating the CONADEP, an
entity that produced a decisive report entitled Nunca más. Nine of the
ten members of the first three military juntas were tried and some of
their members were convicted, although also under his mandate and due to
military pressure, impunity laws began to be enacted. In 1984 the border
dispute with Chile over the Beagle Channel was ended. In 1985, he agreed
with the new democratic president of Brazil, José Sarney, to initiate
the regional integration process that would take shape in 1991 under the
name of Mercosur.
After the 1989 presidential elections and the
country's governance was affected by a hyperinflationary process,
Alfonsín was forced to leave the Presidency and hand over the command
six months in advance. Carlos Menem of the Justicialist Party took
over. With a strong role of Minister Domingo Cavallo, he stopped
inflation through a convertibility regime and carried out a broad
process of privatizations, deregulation, opening up the economy and
external indebtedness, in line with the Washington Consensus of 1989 and
IMF support. Socially, mass unemployment appeared and crime rose
sharply, both becoming central problems of the political agenda. In
1991, Argentina entered the war against Iraq without authorization from
the National Congress, within the coalition led by the United States.
In 1992 and 1994 it suffered two major terrorist attacks, against the
Israeli embassy and against the AMIA, with 23 and 85 dead respectively,
without the culprits being discovered, in investigations with many
irregularities. The border dispute with Chile was resolved for 481 km2
located in the Desert Lake area. In 1994 a pact between Alfonsín and
Menem allowed the reform of the Constitution and the following year
Ménem was re-elected. An arms trafficking operation to Ecuador and
Croatia caused the explosion of the Río Tercero arms factory, damaging
the city, causing seven deaths and seriously affecting relations with
Peru. Social conflicts and strikes increased, exploding villages and
roadblocks that gave rise to the picket movement. In 1998, a period of
recession began that lasted four years and led to the worst crisis in
Argentine history.
In December 1999 Fernando de la Rúa assumed
the presidency of the Radical Civic Union, which at that time was part
of the Alliance. He took measures to reduce the public deficit - among
them the reduction of pensions- and to make labor rights more flexible,
following the instructions of the IMF. The economic and social crisis
worsened and the government appointed President Menem's former minister,
Domingo Cavallo, who ordered the freezing of bank deposits (a measure
known as "el Corralito"), which culminated in a generalized social
insurrection, with dozens of murders caused by the forces of repression,
which led to the resignation of the President on December 20, 2001.
During two weeks of uncertainty, several presidents succeeded each
other, including the brief government of Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, during
which the country entered default by declaring a moratorium on foreign
debt.
On January 2, 2002, the Legislative Assembly elected
Eduardo Duhalde, of the Justicialist Party, as provisional president.
Duhalde put an end to convertibility, establishing an asymmetric
pesification regime, known as "el corralón". The peso was devalued by
300% and the banks did not return the deposits in dollars of their
customers, provoking actions against them by large sectors of the middle
class. During this period poverty rose to 56% of the population and
unemployment to 26%, establishing the subsidies called the Unemployed
Heads of Household Plan, which reached a peak of two million plans in
May 2003. The external debt reached 135% of GDP. That year inflation
was 41% and the increase in food prices reached 74.9%.
Kirchnerism and Macrism
The history of Argentina between 2003 and
2023 has been characterized by the election of Peronism-Kirchnerism four
times (2003, 2007, 2011 and 2019) and once of Macrism-radicalism (2015).
About the end of the period the global COVID-19 pandemic happened
(2020/2021), closing with the 2023 presidential elections, in which a
liberal-libertarian candidate won, for the first time in world history.
The period began with the recovery of the great crisis of December
2001, caused by the social explosion due to the economic convertibility
between the Argentine peso and the US dollar, giving way to the default
of its external debt, thus generating an enormous social upheaval, which
put more than half of the population under the poverty line, with almost
a third of unemployment and wages liquefied by inflation. In the 2003
presidential elections, Néstor Kirchner defeated the menemism
represented by Carlos Menem himself, when the latter resigned to run in
the runoff. During this period, Congress initiated the impeachment
proceedings against five members of the Supreme Court, motivating the
resignation of three and the removal of two others. Impunity laws were
annulled, and trials for crimes against humanity during the dictatorship
were reopened, in which hundreds of repressors were sentenced to prison.
They highlight the impulse to the dismantling of the FTAA, the debt
with the International Monetary Fund was canceled and a restructuring of
the external debt was carried out with a strong cut. GDP grew from US$97
billion in 2002 to more than US$329 billion in 2007. Unemployment fell
from 17.9% in 2002 to 8.5% in 2007. The labor policy reinstated the
annual parity (collective bargaining between employers and unions),
provided for the annual fixing of the minimum wage by tripartite
agreement, reducing unregistered work from 50% in 2003 to 39% in 2007.
Inflation was moderate, although with a tendency to rise: it went from
5.3% in 2004 to an estimated around 15 or 20% for 2007,106 although
official statistics reported a considerably lower rate.
In the
2007 presidential elections, Kirchnerism triumphed again carrying as a
candidate Cristina Fernández de Kirchner for the Front for Victory, the
first Argentine woman who headed a winning presidential formula of the
Argentine elections. During his term of office (2007-2011), the Social
Security system was restated, the Universal Child Allowance was created,
Aerolineas Argentinas was renationalized, the equal marriage law was
approved, the Broadcasting Law of the time of the military dictatorship
was repealed, and a new Media Law was enacted. At the international
level, he promoted the creation of the Union of South American Nations
(UNASUR) and the Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
(CELAC). Shortly after the beginning of his term, he faced an extensive
agricultural lockout supported by mass demonstrations of the
agro-livestock sector, due to the official policy of taxes on exports.
In the 2011 presidential elections, Kirchnerism (Front for Victory)
triumphed for the third time, giving the winner to the candidate
Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, surpassing with 54%, more votes than the
previous two elections.
During his second term, the Restatisation of
51% of the shares of the oil company YPF was approved, the retirement
for housewives and precarious workers was extended, the Audiovisual
Communication Services laws were approved, the Gender Identity Law was
sanctioned, millions of laptops were delivered to children and
adolescents from public schools throughout the country through the state
program Connecting Equality, a new Civil and Commercial Code was
approved and the development of the industrial sector was promoted,
highlighting the launch into orbit on October 16, 2014 of the ARSAT-1
satellite, a geostationary communication satellite by the state-owned
company ARSAT, having been built by the Argentine company INVAP.
Subsequently, on September 30, 2015, ARSAT-2 was launched, which like
the previous one were put into orbit from French Guiana. With the
development and putting into orbit of these satellites, Argentina became
part of the select group of countries in the global space industry.
Also, the launch of the ARSAT-3 satellite was planned within the
National Space Plan, but this development was put on hold due to the
change of political administration produced by the triumph of Macrismo
in the 2015 elections.
During the two periods of Cristina
Fernández de Kirchner, at the same time that poverty, unemployment and
unregistered work were substantially reduced, the Argentine middle class
doubled to a large extent; and there was also a strong legal-media
confrontation between the government and the largest media conglomerate
in the country, the Clarín Group.
In 2012, a period of economic
difficulties and deterioration of social indicators began within the
framework of the Great World Recession of 2008, and especially the
economic crisis in Brazil of 2014, with inflation approaching 30%;
although official data indicated lower rates. Due to the global and
regional situation, the Argentine Government took measures such as the
establishment of regulations for the purchase of dollars, the increase
of public spending, and various types of subsidies to both industry and
public services. During his two terms the GDP grew from US$329,000
million to US$548,000 million in 2014.
In the 2015 presidential
elections, Macrism defeated Peronism-Kirchnerism by runoff. The
politician, engineer, former football manager and businessman Mauricio
Macri (who was also president of the Boca Juniors Athletic Club between
1995 and 2007, Head of Government of the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires
from 2007 to 2015) was elected president by the Republican Proposal
(PRO) with the electoral alliance Cambiemos, first losing with 34% in
the first round but winning with 51% of the votes in the second round;
against the Peronist-Kirchnerist candidate, Daniel Scioli, who obtained
48% in the first round, and 37% in the second round.
His
presidency initiated a stage of complete change of the orientation that
the policies of the Kirchnerist governments had had until that moment,
because he not only applied a series of measures such as the
deregulation of the financial market for the free acquisition of foreign
currency but also reductions to the withholdings on soybeans and other
cereals exports, as well as mining exports; which led to a slight
increase in GDP and inflation; as well as the productive activity of the
country and the pro increase of the external debt.
At the
beginning of January 2016, the Audiovisual Communication Services Law
was modified by Mauricio Macri's Decree of necessity and urgency,
relaxing its antitrust rules but benefiting the country's main mass
media related to the government.
In March of the same year, the
2016 Tariff hike occurred, where the Minister of transport Guillermo
Dietrich announced the increase and dollarization of water, electricity,
fuel and public transport tariffs prior to the celebrations of the
Bicentennial of Argentine Independence, thus being the largest increase
in tariffs in recent history, generating widespread outrage among the
Argentine population.
In 2017, the presidency of Mauricio Macri
promoted a reform of the retirement and pension system known as the
Pension Reform, being approved by the Congress of the Argentine Nation
on December 19 of that same year. This reform reached retired older
adults; pensioners, beneficiaries of social and family allowances; of
the Universal Child Allowance, and even veterans of the Falklands War.
According to its proponents, the objectives of this reform were to
"increase the sustainability of the retirement system and facilitate the
reduction of the fiscal deficit and inflation," but in return it cut
pensions from 3 to 8%, as well as the social security budget by about
AR$72,000 million pesos (approximately 4100 million dollars). This
triggered massive protests and demonstrations with pots and pans in
rejection of the new formula throughout the country, but they were
repressed by the National Gendarmerie, under orders from the Minister of
Security, Patricia Bullrich. In 2018, the amounts of retirements and
pensions lost 19.2% of purchasing power, assets rose by 28.4%, and the
consumer price index increased by 47.6%.
The government of
Mauricio Macri decided to pay the speculative vulture funds, which were
in litigation with Argentina, for figures much higher than those
demanded by them; a first payment was US$9300 million, questioned in
Court, giving rise to a "third generation", a new batch of claimants
with bonds that did not enter the previous debt swaps.
In less
than two years (between December 2015 and June 2017) the debt issued by
the government of Mauricio Macri was almost US$ 100,000 million, thus
reaching the figure of US$216,351 million in December 2017.
In
2018 there was a capital flight, causing the devaluation of the
Argentine peso by 135%. This led the government to re-negotiate with the
International Monetary Fund with debt worth US$55,000 million, the
largest loan granted by the entity in its history, generating a
considerable increase in external debt. In 2019, a second capital flight
occurred, reported as the most gigantic in the entire Argentine history.
This caused another devaluation of the peso by 50%, reaching a total
leakage of US$26,870 million, generating that the Macrist government
re-established the "exchange rate trap", as a Kirchnerist model but with
greater restrictions.
In the 2019 presidential elections,
Mauricio Macri sought re-election, but was defeated by the Peronist
candidate Alberto Fernández, accompanied by Cristina Fernández de
Kirchner as a candidate for Vice President, where they obtained 48% of
the votes.
It ends with the victory of Javier Milei in the 2023
presidential elections, a candidate outside the ideologies that
dominated Argentine politics during these two decades.
On December
10, 2023, President-elect Javier Milei took office as president of
Argentina at the Palace of the Congress of the Argentine Nation. Where
he received the band and cane of former President Alberto Fernández.
The Government of Argentina is a representative, republican and
federal democracy, regulated by the current Constitution. Argentina was
formed by the federative union of the provinces that emerged after the
dissolution of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, and by the
incorporation of those that were constituted from the national
territories established as a result of the conquest of large indigenous
territories. From the government itself, this executive governmental
entity is commonly referred to as the Presidency of the Nation.
Due to the federal nature of its political organization, Argentina has
two parallel government structures: on the one hand the national
structure, with its three branches; and on the other hand the 23
provincial structures — which pre—exist the Nation - plus that of the
Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, which have autonomy and are governed by
three branches in each case.
The authorities of the federal
government have their headquarters in the Autonomous City of Buenos
Aires, which is currently the "Capital of the Republic" or "Capital of
the Nation", denominations used in the national Constitution and in the
federalization law, but usually called the Federal Capital. The Federal
Capital is governed by a system of autonomy and is subdivided into
communes, while the provinces have subdivisions ("departments" or
"parties") and municipalities (which may coincide with the
party/department or not, depending on the province).
The National Executive Power (PEN) of Argentina is the executive
organ of the central State of this country. It is a one-person,
pyramidal body headed by the President of the Argentine nation, an
official who is the country's highest authority, who serves both as head
of State and head of Government and who must be elected every four years
by direct, secret, universal and compulsory suffrage, in a double round
together with the candidate for vice president. The constitutional
reform of 1994 introduced the mechanism of the second round of
elections, which is held between the two most voted options if in the
first one none had obtained more than 45% of the valid votes or, if
having obtained the most voted option between 40 % and 45%, there was a
difference with the second option of less than 10 %.
The
president and vice-president serve four-year terms and are eligible for
immediate re-election for one more term. The Cabinet of ministers of
the President of the Nation is headed by the Chief of the Cabinet of
Ministers, who is in charge of the administration of the country and is
responsible to Congress. As of December 10, 2023 the holder of the PEN
is Javier Milei of the Libertarian Party party with a mandate until
December 10, 2027. He is the tenth president since the restoration of
constitutional order in 1983.
The PEN is responsible for the head
of State and the international representation of the country, the
command in chief of the Argentine Armed Forces and the conduct of the
National Public Administration, among its main functions. The Head of
the Cabinet of Ministers, as well as the ministers and assimilated
secretaries, depend on him. It is the state level in Argentina that has
the largest budget and the largest number of officials and employees.
The PEN also has co-legislative functions and community tasks such
as the promulgation of laws and the power to veto them, and in agreement
with the Chamber of Senators of the Nation, appoints judges.
It
is organized into two main areas: the Presidency of the Nation and the
presidential secretariats area, and the Chief of Cabinet of Ministers
area.
The Congress of the Argentine Nation is the body that exercises the
federal legislative power of the Argentine Republic. It is responsible
for the formation and sanction of federal laws. In addition, it is in
charge of sanctioning the civil, criminal, commercial, labor and mining
legal codes, among others aimed at organizing common substantive
legislation.
The Congress of the Argentine Nation is made up of a
bicameral assembly with 329 members, divided into the Senate (72 seats),
presided over by the Vice President of the Nation and the Chamber of
Deputies (257 seats) whose president is elected by a simple majority.
The Congress of the Argentine Nation meets between March 1 and
November 30 of each year, although the President of the Argentine Nation
can convene extraordinary sessions or extend their extension. In the
first case it is the president who determines the issues to be
discussed, while in the second the Congress of the Argentine Nation has
free initiative. According to the interpretation of the Chambers, this
extension of sessions can also be ordered by Congress.
Its
headquarters is located in the Palace of the Congress of the Argentine
Nation in the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, in the Plaza del Congreso
which is located at the western end of Avenida de Mayo, which connects
it directly with the Plaza de Mayo, where the Casa Rosada is located,
the seat of the national Executive Power.
The Chamber of Deputies
of the Argentine Nation is composed of a variable number of
representatives depending on the population that the district has (each
of the provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires), but this
number can never be less than three, they are elected by the
proportional representation system (D'Hondt system), they last four
years in their mandate and are renewed in halves every two years (each
district elects approximately half of the deputies that correspond to it
every two years) and they can be reelected indefinitely. They are
elected taking each province and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires as
a single district, where a list of all the candidates of each political
party or electoral alliance is voted for the positions that each
district puts into dispute in that election. By the Law of Gender
Parity, it establishes that the lists of candidates for the Congress of
the Argentine Nation must be composed 50% by women and the other 50% by
men. This law accentuated the participation of women in politics,
vigorous in Argentina since the sanction of the Female Quota Law, so
that the Argentine Republic is the South American country with the
largest number of women in the Legislative Power and being, in turn,
among the first ten worldwide.
The Senate of the Argentine Nation
brings together the representatives of the provinces and the Autonomous
City of Buenos Aires. Each one corresponds to two senators for the
majority and one for the minority, for a total of 72 Senators. These are
elected by direct vote of the inhabitants of each district, using the
incomplete list system, two corresponding to the list that obtains the
most votes and one to the one that follows. Their mandate lasts for six
years and is renewed by thirds every two years, corresponding to carry
out the renewal elections by alternate district, being able to be
reelected indefinitely.
The Congress of the Argentine Nation has
an autonomous constitutional body of technical assistance: the General
Audit of the Argentine Nation, in charge of the control of legality,
management and audit of all the activity of the public administration.
In addition, the Ombudsman of the Argentine Nation functions within the
Argentine National Congress as an independent body, without receiving
instructions from any authority. Its purpose is to defend human rights
and constitutional and legal rights that may be affected by the
Administration.
The National Judicial Power (PJN) is one of the three powers that
make up the Argentine Republic and is exercised by the Supreme Court of
Justice (CSJN) and by the other lower courts established by Congress in
the territory of the Nation.
It is regulated in the third section
of the second part of the Constitution of the Argentine Nation. The
Supreme court is composed of five lawyer judges appointed by the
President of the Nation with the agreement of the Senate, which requires
a two-thirds majority for this.
The lower courts are responsible
for resolving conflicts regulated by federal legislation throughout the
country (federal courts) and also by common legislation in the
Autonomous City of Buenos Aires (national courts). The appointment of
judges is carried out by the President of the Nation with the agreement
of the Senate, on the basis of a shortlist composed of candidates
selected in public competition by the Council of the Judiciary, a
multisectoral body, which has direct control of judges and the
administration of the judiciary. The judges remain in their positions
"as long as their good behavior lasts" and can only be removed in case
of serious infractions, by a Trial Jury, composed of legislators,
magistrates and lawyers and senators.
The Public Prosecutor's Office of Argentina is an independent
constitutional body with functional and financial autonomy, with the
function of promoting the performance of justice. The Public Ministry is
considered by part of the doctrine as a fourth power, while another part
maintains that it is an extra-powerful organ.
It is a two-headed
body, composed of the Public Prosecutor's Office, headed by the Attorney
General of the Nation and in charge of the action of prosecutors, and
the Public Defense Ministry headed by the General defender of the Nation
and in charge of the action of official or public defenders. The
Ombudsman is not part of this body, but constitutes an independent body
within the scope of the National Congress, with functional autonomy.
Prosecutors are responsible for defending public interests in
judicial proceedings, urging public action, while public defenders are
responsible for defending the rights of people persecuted by the
country's courts or who, for some reason, cannot exercise their defense,
such as in the case of minors, incapacitated or affected by
discrimination.
Due to the federal system adopted by the Constitution, the provinces
are autonomous and retain all power not explicitly delegated to the
federal government.
All provinces have a republican and
representative constitution that organizes its own powers, executive,
legislative and judicial, and regulates the regime of municipal
autonomy. The provinces may enact laws on non-federal issues, but the
main common laws (civil, commercial, criminal, labor, social security
and mining) are reserved to the National Congress (National
Constitution, article 75, paragraph 12).
In all provinces, the
executive branch is headed by a governor who serves for four years and
is generally eligible for re-election. Legislative power in some
provinces is exercised by a unicameral legislature and in others by a
bicameral legislature. All provinces have a judicial branch with its
corresponding provincial Superior Court and courts responsible for
resolving conflicts governed by common law (civil, criminal, commercial,
labor, local administrative).
The Autonomous City of Buenos Aires
has a special regime of autonomy, in such a way that without carrying
the title of "province", it functions the same as a province, similar to
what happens in Mexico with Mexico City, which being a city has fully
the rank of "State". Since 1996, the City of Buenos Aires has had its
own provincial-level constitution and elects its own governor, who bears
the title of "Head of Government". Since 2005, Buenos Aires has been
divided into communes and since 2011 the bureau or communal board that
governs in each commune has been elected. A law passed in 1880 confirmed
it as the capital of the Republic and federalized it, separating it from
the province of Buenos Aires. Its political organization also has a
republican Constitution that establishes a government divided into three
branches (executive, legislative and judicial) and a decentralization
regime in communes. The restrictions on autonomy have influenced that
until 2006 it lacked its own police and a judicial system to resolve
conflicts motivated by the application of common laws. The holder of the
executive power bears the title of Head of Government of the City of
Buenos Aires. As of 2020, 16 of the 24 first-order jurisdictions have
unicameral legislatures, while all deliberative councils throughout the
country are also single-chamber.
The National Constitution
requires each province to organize a municipal regime and recognizes the
municipalities their autonomy.
The municipalities direct the
destinies of each city or town; usually, their jurisdiction extends to
the surrounding rural area and, sometimes, covers smaller localities.
The foreign relations of Argentina are the relations that this
country has with other foreign countries, both in the political field,
as well as in the economic, commercial, military, legal, cultural,
geopolitical and geostrategic fields. Since its inception, Argentina has
been a major player in South America and has played an important role in
the global political arena, although its orientation and alliances have
varied greatly over time and from different governments. Even so,
Argentina has been characterized, in general, and with some exceptions,
by a higher level of autonomy from the great powers, and a more
sovereign foreign policy, compared to other Latin American countries,
due to its higher level of development, the perception of having an
important role to play in the world, and the greater weight that
ideologies, intellectuals and anti-imperialist currents have had
throughout their history. In that sense, its foreign policy is
comparable to that of other intermediate powers.
Argentina's
foreign relations are managed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
International Trade and Worship of the Argentine Republic. The current
Chancellor is Diana Mondino.
He participated in every phase of
the Haiti operation and has also contributed to peacekeeping operations
in various areas of the world. In recognition of its contributions to
international security and peacemaking, US President Bill Clinton
designated Argentina as an important non-NATO ally in January 1998.
Argentina maintains a sovereignty dispute over the Malvinas, South
Sandwich Islands, Aurora and South Georgia, administered by the United
Kingdom, along with their surrounding maritime spaces. It also claims
almost 1 million square kilometers in Antarctica that are not recognized
by another country, except partially by Chile.
During 2006, a
dispute began with Uruguay due to the start of work on a cellulosic
plant of the Finnish company Metsä-Botnia in the Uruguayan town of Fray
Bentos. Argentina has sued Uruguay before the International Court of
Justice arguing that the installation of the pulp mills is polluting and
has been carried out in violation of the Statute of the Uruguay River.
The Argentine Armed Forces, commonly the Armed Forces (FF.AA.), is a
term that collectively represents the Argentine Army (EA), the Navy of
the Argentine Republic (ARA) and the Argentine Air Force (FAA), in
addition to the Joint Chiefs of Staff of the Armed Forces (EMCFFAA). All
these institutions are part of the National Defense System and their
main mission is to contribute to national defense to protect the vital
interests of the Nation.
The President of the Argentine Nation is
the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, who attends to his issues
through the Ministry of Defense.
The oldest forces are the Army
and the Navy, born in 1810, while the Air Force was created in 1945.
Together, they formed one of the largest powers in all of Latin America
due to the war conflicts that Argentina had, but this power was
considerably reduced after 1983. The last dictatorship allocated an
average of 3.64% of GDP for defense spending. The democratic governments
that followed the dictatorship reduced the corresponding allocations to
the Armed Forces to an average of 1.22% of GDP for the period
1984-2019. The Minister of Defense Oscar Aguad, during the
administration of Mauricio Macri, considered during his administration
that the Argentine Armed Forces had "very poor equipment and very low
salaries." The Macri administration allocated an annual average of
0.78% of GDP to the Armed Forces, while Cristina Fernández de Kirchner
allocated 0.80% in her first term and 0.83% in the second.
During
peacetime, the forces carry out training activities, applied research,
development of their own equipment and carry out peacekeeping missions
all over the planet. The minimum age for admission is 18 years, there is
no compulsory military service.
Since 2016 they have been merely
authorized to shoot down hostile aircraft that enter Argentine airspace
without prior permission, following a series of protocol steps such as
alerting all national forces and the president, proceed to identify the
aircraft, warn it, intimidate it and in case of not yielding, take the
measure of extreme force. These drastic measures are in order to combat
complex crime, organized crime and drug trafficking that increasingly
worries the country.
Since 1980, the incorporation of women into
the Armed Forces has been progressively authorized and a gender policy
has been implemented since 2005. The percentage of women in the armed
forces increased from 7.6% in 2006 to 16.8% in 2017. In 2015 the three
forces totaled approximately 77,000 personnel. In 2018, the number of
reported troops reached just over 83,000.
Security Forces
The
security of territorial waters corresponds to the Argentine Naval
Prefecture (PNA), that of border regions and critical infrastructure
works to the Argentine National Gendarmerie (GNA) and that of airports
to the Airport Security Police (PSA); these security forces report to
the Ministry of Security.
The National Intelligence System
directs intelligence actions, among which the Federal Intelligence
Agency (AFI) stands out, although there are also different public
agencies such as the Judicial Observations Directorate, the Department
of Interception and Capture of Communications, the Intelligence of the
National Gendarmerie, the Anti-Corruption Office, among others.
Each province has its own police, which can work in conjunction with the
PFA, the security force that is responsible for crimes of an exclusively
federal scope or involving more than one jurisdiction. The Federal
Police was until 2009 the police force of the city of Buenos Aires, when
the then Buenos Aires head of Government Mauricio Macri created the
Buenos Aires Metropolitan Police, it was created within the framework of
Law No. 2894, on Public Security, which was sanctioned on October 28,
2008 and promulgated by means of decree 1354 of November 18 of that
year. The regulation of the standard was registered on March 20, 2009 by
means of Decree 210.
In its Constitution, Argentina establishes the constitutional
hierarchy of human rights treaties.
According to the 2018 United
Nations Development Programme Human Development Report, Argentina has a
Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.825. Globally, it is ranked 47th
among the 189 states participating in the classification, classified as
a very high HDI country that, along with Chile and Uruguay, are the only
countries in Latin America that are at this level of HDI.
The territorial organization of Argentina is made up of several levels. On the first level are the 23 provinces and the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires, which is the capital of the nation where the seat of the federal Government is located. On a second level there are 379 departments, municipalities or parties and 15 communes (localities).
In Argentina, each of the twenty-three federated states so named in
the Constitution of the Argentine Nation is called a province, which
together with the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires constitute the
jurisdictions-territorial divisions of the first order of the country.
The provinces have full autonomy, are part of the Nation and are
legally pre-existing to it, according to the principles of federalism
established in the National Constitution. Legally, Argentina was
constituted as a federation of provinces and maintains by constitutional
mandate the historical names of the United Provinces of the Río de la
Plata and the Argentine Confederation, in addition to the Argentine
Republic (the only usual one).
Buenos Aires is the capital and most populous city of the Argentine
Republic. Its official names are Ciudad de Buenos Aires or Ciudad
Autónoma de Buenos Aires (CABA). It is also called the Federal Capital,
because it is the seat of the national government. It is one of the 24
districts, or "first-order jurisdictions," that make up the country.
Since 1996 it has been an autonomous city, so it has its own executive,
legislative and judicial powers. It is located in the central-eastern
region of the country, on the south bank of the Río de la Plata, in the
Pampas region. The city of Buenos Aires was ceded in 1880 by the
province of Buenos Aires to be the federal capital of the country; as of
2020 it is considered the "main capital", along with 24 alternate
capitals. By virtue of the constitutional reform of 1994 it enjoys a
regime of autonomy.
Its urban fabric resembles a fan that borders
the neighboring province of Buenos Aires to the south, west and north
and the Río de la Plata to the east. Officially the city is divided into
15 communes that group 48 neighborhoods.
The population of the
city, according to the 2022 Census, is 3,120,612 inhabitants. It is
part of a larger urban agglomerate called the Metropolitan Area of
Buenos Aires (AMBA) together with forty parties-municipalities of the
bordering province of Buenos Aires, which in total has a population of
13,395,796 inhabitants.
Buenos Aires is a cosmopolitan city and
an important tourist destination. Its complex infrastructure makes it
one of the most important metropolises in America and it is a global
city of "alpha-" category, given its influences in commerce, finance,
fashion, art, gastronomy, education, entertainment and mainly in its
marked culture. According to a quality of life study (2019) by Mercer
Human Resource Consulting, the city is ranked 91st in the world and
second in Latin America after Montevideo. Its per capita income is one
of the highest in the region. In 2022, it was the most visited city in
Latin America. It is considered one of the twenty-five most influential
cities in the world.
Its urban profile is markedly eclectic. The
Spanish colonial, art deco, art nouveau, neo-Gothic, Italianate, Bourbon
French and French academicism styles are mixed. For the latter, added to
its building development and marked European influence on its
architecture in certain areas, it is known in the world by the nickname
"The Paris of America".
The regions for economic and social development, or simply regions, are coordination entities formally constituted in Argentina by interprovincial treaties, which group together a number of provinces that voluntarily accede. Among its main objectives is the improvement in the execution of public policies, the administration of economic resources, and the promotion of the economic and social development of the provinces that make them up. The conformation of a region can respond to historical, geographical, economic, social, cultural and political aspects, there being no established criteria for its conformation.
The territory of the Argentine Republic is the second largest in
South America after that of Brazil, fourth in all of America and the
eighth in land area. If the territories claimed in Antarctica, the
Falklands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands are counted, it
makes it the seventh largest country in the world.
It borders
Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. Its geography is very
varied, being mostly plains in the east, mountains in the center and
mountains in the west. The country is crossed, at its western end, from
north to south by the Andes mountain range. The highest peak in
Argentina is the Aconcagua, 6960.8 m a.s.l.
The Argentine
territory under effective sovereignty has a great longitudinal
development: 3700 kilometers between the extreme north and the extreme
south, from Santa Catalina (Jujuy) to Ushuaia, which makes it one of the
longest countries in the world.
The American continental surface
of Argentina is 2,791,820 km2. Of these, 2,780,400 km2 correspond to the
national area under effective sovereignty, corresponding to the Federal
Capital (Autonomous City of Buenos Aires) and 23 Argentine provinces.
The rest is made up of the 11,410 km2 of the Malvinas Islands,
territories in dispute with the United Kingdom, the country that
controls them.
The Antarctic continental surface ― area under the
postulates of the Antarctic Treaty - comprises 969 464 km2. Of these,
about 965,597 km2 correspond to the Argentine Antarctica (claimed
territory). In addition, this area includes the South Shetland Islands
and the South Orkney Islands. The remaining 3867 km2 are made up of the
South Georgia Islands (3560 km2) and the South Sandwich Islands (307
km2) that are part of the South Atlantic Islands department of the
province of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands, as
well as the Antarctic sector (included as a department).
The
total area would thus amount to 3,761,274 km2. Even so, this figure does
not include: the Argentine oceanic strip of 200 nautical miles
corresponding to the Argentine Sea, nor the waters of the Río de la
Plata. On the other hand, because of the United Kingdom's claim to
extend its maritime area to 350 nautical miles (about 564 km) from the
low-tide coastline, starting from territories claimed by Argentina, or
occupied by the United Kingdom but which are in dispute with Argentina,
the maritime extension claims of both countries overlap, both in the
South Atlantic islands and in the projection from the Antarctic
continent and its islands.
The Argentine Republic is a country located in South America, more
specifically in the Southern Cone. It has an area of 2,780,400 km2,
which makes it the eighth largest country in the world, the largest
Spanish-speaking country and the second largest in South America, second
only to Brazil. If the claimed or disputed territories were counted,
Argentina would be the seventh largest country in the world, surpassing
India.
Argentina has borders of 11,968 km (with five bordering
countries: Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile, highlighting
the latter, since it is the third longest border in the world) and a
coastline of 4,989 km. There are a large number of rivers, especially in
the Paraná Delta area, the Argentine Mesopotamia, the Austral Chaco and
the Argentine Northwest, highlighting the Paraná, the Salado Norte, the
Uruguay, the Iguazú and the Bermejo.
As for the political
division, Argentina is divided into 24 jurisdictions (23 provinces and
the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires which in turn are divided into 530
departments, parties and communes divided into municipalities.
The geographical regions of Argentina are each of the large
territorial divisions, defined by geographical and historical-social
characteristics into which the South American nation is divided.
In Argentina, the idea of a region is not associated with a
political-administrative entity, or power relations, but with an area
defined by both physical geography and human geography.
Several
regions have been proposed throughout history. The most stable have been
the Pampas, Cuyana, Northwestern and Patagonia regions. Some of them
tend to disappear, such as Mesopotamia. On the contrary, the Northeast
region and the Metropolitan region tend to recognize each other. Several
relevant authors have considered the regions of Chaco and/or the Pampas
Mountains. The separation of Patagonia into Andean and Extra-Andean
tends to lose consensus. In the same sense, the separation of the Pampas
into Wet and Dry was proposed by a Difrieri, but this was not taken up
by other authors. Several relevant authors have considered regions for
the Argentine Antarctica and for the Argentine Sea. Thus, in the last
50 years, the number of regions has been between 8 and 6 continental
regions; to which 1 or 2 maritime/Antarctic can be added.
The general characteristics of the orography of Argentina are the
presence of mountains in the west and plains in the east, configuring a
planimetry that decreases in altitude from west to east.
The
western end is formed by the Main Mountain Range of the Andean system.
To the north are the highest sectors of the mountain range, which are
also the highest on the continent. There is the Aconcagua Hill, which
with an altitude of 6960.8 m a.s.l., is the highest point in the world
outside the Himalayan system. Other prominent peaks are Mount Pissis
(6882 m a.s.l.) in La Rioja, the snowy Ojos del Salado (6864 m a.s.l.)
in Catamarca, the Cerro Bonete Chico (6850 m a.s.l.) in La Rioja, the
Cerro Tupungato (6800 m a.s.l. m.) in Mendoza, the Mercedario Hill (6770
m a.s.l.) in San Juan, among others. The Patagonian section of the
Andes, which originates in Neuquén, is notoriously lower than the
northern sector: the Lanín volcano (3776 m a.s.l.) in Neuquén, Mount
Tronador (3478 m a.s.l.) in Río Negro and Mount Fitz Roy or Chaltén
(3405 m a.s.l.) in Santa Cruz, are its highest heights.
Immediately to the east of the main chain, there are a series of
mountain ranges or sierras that, having different or identical origins
to the Andes mountain range itself, form with this part of the Andean
system. A first group of these are those mountain ranges that run
parallel to the Main Mountain Range in its highest part: Sierra de la
Punilla (Cerro Silvo, 4486 m a.s.l.) in San Juan, Sierra del Tontal
(Cerro Pircas 4366 m a.s.l.) in San Juan, Sierra de Uspallata (Cerro
Pelado 3452 m a.s.l.) in Mendoza, Cordón del Plata (Cerro Blanco 5490 m
a.s.l. m.) in Mendoza, to which can be added the Cordillera del Viento
(Domuyo volcano 4709 m a.s.l.) in the north of Neuquén.
The
Subandine Mountains, in the north, are a series of stepped mountains
that make up very populated valleys; in these mountains are the Nevado
de Cachi (6380 m a.s.l.), the Nevado de Chañi (6200 m a.s.l.), the
Nevado de Palermo (6172 m a.s.l.) and the Nevado Queva (6130 m a.s.l.),
all in Salta and Jujuy. To the south of them are the Pampean Mountains,
more spaced apart from each other and separated by plains.
More
widely spaced, to the south of the sub-Andean mountain ranges and to the
east of those parallel to the Main Mountain Range, there are several
mountain ranges and mountain ranges separated by plains. They are the
Sierra del Aconquija (Cerro del Bolsón 5550 m a.s.l., in Tucumán) in
Catamarca and Tucumán, the Sierra de Fiambalá (Cerro Morado, 4920 m
a.s.l.) in Catamarca, the Sierra de Ambato (4407 m a.s.l.) in Catamarca,
the Sierra de Famatina (Cerro General Belgrano, 6201 m a.s.l.) in La
Rioja, the Sierra from Velasco (cerro El Mela, 4257 m a.s.l.) in La
Rioja, the Sierra de Valle Fértil (Cerro Tres Mojones, 2537 m a.s.l. m.)
in San Juan, the Sierra Pie de Palo (mogote Corralitos, 3162 m a.s.l.)
in San Juan, the Sierras de Córdoba (Cerro Champaquí, 2790 m a.s.l.) in
Córdoba, the Sierra de San Luis (Cerro Agua Hedionda, 2150 m a.s.l.) in
San Luis and the Sierra del Nevado (cerro Nevado, 3810 m a.s.l.) in
Mendoza.
The Patagonian plateau is a set of elevated and arid
highlands and plains intricate with steep mountain ranges, nestled
between the Patagonian Andes and the Atlantic Ocean, where it drops
steeply into high cliffs overlooking the Argentine Sea. This plateau is
dotted by sporadic low and small mountain ranges and isolated hills
(Cerro Anecón Grande, 2010 m a.s.l. in Río Negro, Cerro Calfuquir, 1885
m a.s.l. in Chubut, Cerro Cojudo Blanco, 1335 m a.s.l. in Santa Cruz).
In the Argentine Patagonia there is also the deepest depression in all
of America: the Laguna del Carbón at 105 meters below sea level.
In eastern Mesopotamia, on the foothills of the Brasilia massif, the
relief appears as low mountain ranges in the province of Misiones
(Sierra de Misiones or Sierra del Imán, 846 m a.s.l.), which to the
south, in the provinces of Corrientes and Entre Ríos, transform into
even lower blades or hills of sedimentary origin, which constitute an
undulating topography (Tres Cerros, 138 m a.s.l. in Corrientes).
The great Chaco-Pampas plain is the emblematic geographical environment
of Argentina. They constitute plains with few undulations (with the
exception of isolated mountain ranges in the south of the Pampa),
subtropical to the north (Chaco) and temperate to the south (Pampa). The
gentle slope, of northwest-southeast direction, is practically
imperceptible, so the rivers cross the plain are sinuous, forming
estuaries and swamps in lands where the slope is almost canceled: Teuco
River in Salta, Salty and Sweet rivers in Santiago del Estero, Formosa,
Iberá estuaries in Corrientes, south of Córdoba, southeast of Buenos
Aires. The monotony of the landscape is broken only by the presence of
some mountain systems: the Tandilia System (Cerro La Juanita, 524 m
a.s.l.), the Ventania system (Cerro Tres Picos, 1238 m a.s.l. m.) in
Buenos Aires, the Sierra de Lihuel Calel (500 m a.s.l.) and the Sierra
de Choique Mahuida (Cerro Ojo de Agua, 297 m a.s.l.) in La Pampa.
The hydrography of Argentina studies the country's natural water
bodies, which include rivers, lakes, wetlands, ice fields and
groundwater; in addition to those created by human action, such as
reservoirs and canals.
The Argentine rivers are grouped into
three basins or slopes: those of the Atlantic slope, which drain into
the Argentine Sea, those of the Pacific slope and, finally, those
belonging to the various endorheic basins of the interior of the
country.
The climate of Argentina is determined by the position of almost all
of its territory in the temperate zone of the terrestrial southern
hemisphere. Its great development in latitude, allows warm subtropical
climates in the north and cold in the south. Many Argentine regions are
characterized by a small temperature difference between winter and
summer, typical of oceanic climates. The country's rainfall depends on
two planet-scale maritime air masses that bring moist air from the
oceans: the tropical air mass of the South Atlantic Ocean and the
maritime polar air mass of the South Pacific. Of these it is responsible
for the abundant and sufficient rains of the wide areas of the
Chaco-Pampean plain. The Andes mountain range and other mountain systems
favor orographic rains in some regions and reduce them in others. Where
they are favored, humid climates take place. The areas where they are
reduced, the latter form a large area of arid climates, which belong to
the arid diagonal of South America that crosses the country from
northwest to southeast.
Argentine climates have been classified
by various authors. The most recent of the classifications is that of
the National Geographic Institute (IGN) (Map 1) that updates a long
tradition of national classifications that, in turn, are based on the
international classification of Köppen and Geiger.
Argentina's
climate is strongly related to important sectors of its economy. The
different climatic types allow and favor different types of crops and
livestock. He is also involved in certain types of tourism.
Climate change in Argentina refers to the causes, effects and
policies for mitigation and adaptation to climate change in Argentina.
According to scientists, global warming is predicted to have significant
effects on Argentina's climate. Although temperatures have been rising
at a slower rate than the global average, these impacts have occurred in
many areas. If these trends continue, it is predicted that climate
change will exacerbate existing natural disasters, such as increasing
the intensity and frequency of floods or create new flood areas.
In December 2013, a very prolonged heat wave was recorded in Argentina
since measurements began in 1906, affecting at least 52 cities
throughout the country. For the first time since the creation of the
heat alarm system, an alert was issued at the red level.
The
Center for Research on the Sea and the Atmosphere (CIMA) reported at the
end of November 2014 that since 1964 rainfall increased by 10% (almost
200 mm) in almost the entire country, but rainfall decreased in the
regions of Cuyo and the Patagonian Andes. On the other hand, throughout
the Argentine Patagonia, the average temperature rose by 1 °C, which has
caused glaciers to retreat and ascend the lower level of the eternal
mountain snows.
According to a report released at the end of
March 2014 by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, if
current GHG emission levels are continued, there will be more rains and
possible floods in the center and north of continental American
Argentina, and more droughts in the west and south of continental
American Argentina.
In 2016, Argentina presented its first
Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC), which was considered "highly
insufficient" by the Climate Action Tracker website to reach the 1.5°C
warming target proposed by the Paris Agreement. In December 2020, a new
NDC was presented, with more ambitious objectives, greater clarity in
transparency mechanisms and a monitoring plan for mitigation and
adaptation strategies. This earned it a change in the category from
"highly insufficient" to "insufficient" in the rating of the Climate
Action Tracker.
In the summer of 2023, temperatures in much of
the country reached extreme levels, considering this latest heat wave
the most brutal driven by climate change.
The main environmental problems in Argentina are pollution caused by poor waste management; deforestation and desertification, caused by poor management of agricultural land; and the indiscriminate application of pesticides, which affects both Argentina's biodiversity and its population.
The national flag of Argentina is, along with the coat of arms of the
Argentine Republic, the Argentine national anthem and the cockade of
Argentina, one of the four national symbols of that country. Its
creation corresponds to Manuel Belgrano, who designed it with the blue
and white colors of the national cockade; although later it had some
modifications. It was flown for the first time in Rosario, on February
27, 1812:
Being necessary to fly a flag and not having it,
Mandela made white and light blue, according to the colors of the
national cockade. I hope it is of the approval of V.E.
Manuel
Belgrano. Office to the First Triumvirate.
The Government of the
United Provinces disavowed the act. However, the banner was solemnly
sworn in on February 13, 1813 on the banks of the current Juramento
River (current province of Salta) by the Northern Army under the command
of Manuel Belgrano, as part of the oath of allegiance ceremony to the
Sovereign Constituent General Assembly of the XIIl Year. Days later, on
February 20, 1813, he flamed for the first time in combat, during the
Battle of Salta, as a representation of the United Provinces of the Río
de la Plata, obtaining a total victory in front of the Royalist Army.
The final design of the official flag was established by the Congress of
Tucumán on July 26, 1816.
The Sun of May, also called the Inca Sun, is one of the Argentine and
Uruguayan national emblems, present on their flags and shields. It is
also present on various historical flags and state and military shields
of Peru, as well as on the flag of the First Philippine Republic.
It was created by the Cuzco engraver of Peruvian origin, Juan de
Dios Rivera Túpac-Amaru (1760-1843). According to the historian Diego
Abad de Santillán, it is a representation of the Inca sun god, Inti.
The version that appeared on the first Argentine coin and on its current
flag contains sixteen straight rays and sixteen flaming rays (32 in
total) interspersed that come out of a sun with a human face. While the
version that uses the flag of Uruguay has eight straight rays and eight
flamboyant, also interspersed.
The name "de Mayo" refers to the
May Revolution, which took place in the week of May 18 to 25, 1810, and
which marked the beginning of the process of independence from Spain of
the current countries that at that time formed the Viceroyalty of the
Río de La Plata.
The coat of arms of Argentina is — along with the flag of Argentina,
the Argentine national anthem and the cockade of Argentina — one of the
four national symbols of the Argentine Republic. It was officially
accepted on March 12, 1813 by the General Constituent Assembly of that
year. Even so, documents issued by the Assembly are preserved that
testify that before the decree approving its design was known, the
current coat of arms was already used, having been used before this the
coat of arms of the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata.
The coat
of arms of Argentina has the shape of an ellipse in the ratio 14:11. The
ellipse on the main axis is divided between celestial (light blue) and
silver or argent (white) and, therefore, remains in the national colors.
The Assembly of the XIII Year commissioned the deputy for San Luis,
Agustín Donado to be in charge of making the seal with which the
Government documentation would be authenticated, the definitive
engraving of such a seal was made by the Peruvian goldsmith Juan de Dios
Rivera (1760-1843), who seems to have been inspired by a shield used by
the Jacobins during the French Revolution.
In the AGN there is
the decree of March 12, 1813 signed by Hipólito Vieytes and Tomás
Antonio Valle, secretary and president respectively of the Assembly by
which it is ordered:
That the Supreme Executive Power use the
same seal of this Sovereign Body with the only difference that the
inscription of the circle is that of the Supreme Executive Power of the
United Provinces of the Río de la Plata.
The fact that Manuel
Belgrano used it as the central symbol of the gallardete of the
emancipatory troops consecrated the emblem, being adopted by peoples and
governments as a symbol of Argentine nationality.
After some
modifications in the design of the shield, the current design was
finally sanctioned on April 24, 1944 by decree law No. 10,302 of the
National Executive Power, establishing that the original design be used
exclusively.
The Argentine National Anthem is the official anthem of Argentina,
and one of the patriotic symbols of that country. It was written by
Vicente López y Planes in 1812 and composed by Blas Parera a year later.
Originally it was called Patriotic March, then National Patriotic song
and later it was a patriotic Song. A publication in 1847 called it the
"Argentine National Anthem", a name it has retained and by which it is
known.
The day of the Argentine National Anthem is May 11th.
The cockade is a badge that accompanies the national symbols of
Argentina. It was instituted by a decree of February 18, 1812 of the
First Triumvirate of Argentina, who determined that:
Let it be the
national cockade of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata of white
and sky blue color.
"In Union and Freedom" is an expression used for the first time as a motto on the silver and gold coins minted in Potosi by order of the Assembly of the Year XIII254 during the War of Independence undertaken by the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata to emancipate themselves from the Spanish crown. Abandoned since the 1840s, it did not make its appearance in Argentine numismatics again until it was recovered in the last decade of the twentieth century, and it is currently inscribed on all Argentine peso coins and banknotes in circulation. The expression was used in one of the flags that accompanied the San Martín campaign to Chile, and in the current flag of the province of San Juan. Several authors consider this expression as the national motto of the Argentine Republic.
The logo of Argentina (or Argentine Brand) is the official logo of
the state and is used to represent the Country Brand, created to promote
tourism, mainly from abroad.
The first logo was chosen in a
contest held in 2006, called the Contest for the Visual Identity of the
Argentine Brand, which included some of the best designers in the
country.
Through presidential decree 1372/2008, published on
August 29, 2008 in the Official Gazette, the Argentine government
created the Intersectoral Commission of the Argentine Country Brand
Strategy, formed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International
Trade, the Ministry of Tourism and the Media Secretariat of the Head of
the Cabinet of Ministers.
In July 2021, the last (and current)
logo was selected by Decree 460/2021. National companies such as
CONICET, Aerolineas Argentinas, also the Argentine Chamber of Tourism
and the World Tourism Organization participated in the selection of the
same.
In the same decree, the logo representing Argentina abroad
became official.
Article 1 - Create the "Argentine Brand", whose
Official Sign will be the isologotype that appears in the Annex that is
an integral part of the present, which will allow to homogenize the
national image in the world.
Subtropical plants dominate the north of the country, as part of the
Gran Chaco region. The Aspidosperma genus of trees is well disseminated
and is represented by the rosewood and the quebracho tree; the black and
white carob trees (Prosopis alba and Prosopis nigra) are also
predominant. The savannah exists in the driest regions, near the Andes.
Aquatic plants thrive in the wetlands that endow the region.
In
the central area of the country there is the humid Pampa, a large
meadow. Originally, the pampas had virtually no trees; but due to human
intervention, certain imported species such as the American sycamore or
the eucalyptus are present. One of the native trees of the area is the
ombú, an evergreen tree.
The surface soils of the Pampas plain
have a large amount of humus. This makes the region very productive for
agriculture.
The western pampa or dry pampa receives less than
500mm/year of precipitation, and is a plain of hard grasses or steppe.
To a large extent, its tussok is the same as that of Comahue, the
central region of the western pampas, and is covered with "montes" or
forests of the deciduous tree called caldén. It is distributed on a
diagonal that goes from the southern limits of the provinces of Córdoba
and San Luis to the southern limits of the provinces of La Pampa and
Buenos Aires.
Most of the vegetation of the Argentine Patagonia
is composed of shrubs and herbs, adapted to withstand the dry conditions
of this habitat. The soil is hard and rocky and makes large-scale
agriculture impossible, except for the valleys. Coniferous forests grow
in western Patagonia and on the island of Tierra del Fuego. The native
conifers of the region include the larch, cordillera cypress, guaitecas
cypress, the huililahuan, the lleuque, mañío hembra, and the araucaria,
while the native leafy trees include several species of Nothofagus,
including the coigüe, the lenga and the ñire.
Foreign trees
present in forestry plantations are spruce, cypress, and pine. The
common plants are the copihue and the colihue. In Cuyo, semi-arid thorny
shrubs and other xerophilic plants abound. Along several oases, river
grasses and trees grow in significant numbers. The area presents the
optimal conditions for the large-scale growth of grape vines. In the
northwest of Argentina there are many species of cactus. At the highest
elevations (about 4000 m a.s.l. m.), no important vegetation grows due
to the extreme altitude, and the soils are virtually devoid of any plant
life.
Most of Argentina is located within the Neotropical
phytogeographic region (Cabrera, 1976), with 4 domains represented in
this region. The greatest floristic richness of Argentina is found in
subtropical rainforests of the Amazonian domain located in the north of
the country. The Chaco domain is also the most extensive formation, with
deciduous subtropical forests, steppes and savannas from the Atlantic
Ocean to the Andean region, and from the borders with Bolivia and
Paraguay to the north of the province of Chubut. To the south and west
of Argentina is the Patagonian Andean domain, comprising the
high-altitude deserts of the Andes, the Puna and the Patagonian steppes,
and the Subantarctic domain comprising a narrow strip of temperate
deciduous and evergreen forests along the Patagonian Andes.
The Argentine territory includes a great variety of biomes and
biotopes, due to its extension and climatic variety conditioned by such
diverse factors as latitude, altitudes, soil conditions, etc. This
variety has as a consequence an important diversity in the native fauna.
To understand the existence of animal species it is necessary to
understand how the trophic network of each ecosystem is and within it,
that of each biotope, but in the case of Argentina an explanation in
detail is almost impossible precisely because of its great ecological
diversity.
A good part of the Argentine mammal fauna arrived
thousands or millions of years ago from North America; being relatively
few those coming from the ancient megacontinent of Gondwana have
survived to the present. Among the latter, the most outstanding are the
armadillos, anteaters, and marsupials such as opossums, the little
monkey of the mountain or the red weasel and primates (all
platyrrhines).
In this way, the Argentine territory (like that of
the entire Southern Cone) is designated as part of the faunal region and
the neotropical ecozone, the temperate and cold climate of much of the
territory have generated endemisms and convergent evolutions and have
allowed rapid acclimatizations of species from the Holarctic region,
either those due from ca 9 million years ago by the Great American
Exchange or those produced half a millennium ago and up to the present.
In the tropical and mostly subtropical north, a large number of
animal species are found. There are big cats such as the jaguar, the
puma, and the ocelot; large canids such as the aguará guazú or maned
wolf, the ursid called spectacled bear; primates such as the howler
monkeys and the caí monkey; large reptiles such as two species of
yacares. Other animals are the tapir, the capybaras, two species of
anteaters, the greater ferret, three species of peccaries, the giant
otter, the coati, and several species of turtles.
In the
subtropical zone of Argentina there are many birds such as the harpy
eagle (the largest predatory bird of the continent), dozens of species
of tiny hummingbirds, three species of flamingos, five species of
toucans and various species of parrots. The central prairies are
populated by the tatú, the colo colo, and the rhea or South American
ostrich. Hawks, various ducks as well as herons and partridges also
inhabit the area, as do several species of deer and foxes. Some species
extend into Patagonia.
The western mountains are home to various
animals. Among them are the llama, the taruca, the guanaco and the
vicuña, which are some of the most recognizable species in South
America. Also in this region are the Andean cat and the condor. The
latter is the largest flying bird in the world, as well as one of those
that flies to greater heights.
Southern Argentina is home to the
puma, the huemul, the pudú (the smallest deer in the world) and the
introduced wild boar. The coast of Patagonia is rich in animal life: the
elephant seal, the sea lion, the sea lion, and various species of
penguins. At the southern end are the cormorants, which feed on fish.
The territorial waters of Argentina have abundant oceanic life;
there are mammals such as dolphins and whales. One of the most
outstanding whales is the right whale, along with killer whales are the
great tourist attraction of Peninsula Valdes and Puerto Madryn. Marine
fish include sardines, hakes, salmon, and cazones; squid and spider crab
are also present in Tierra del Fuego. The rivers and streams in
Argentina have many species of freshwater fish such as trout and a South
American fish such as the dorado. According to the general culture, the
Argentine national fish is the Surubí.
Argentina and the South
American subcontinent in general are characterized by their abundant and
extraordinary avifauna, existing in the American continental Argentina
about 1400 species of birds of all kinds, although quantitatively only a
few tens stand out a lot and many of them (because of the human being)
under risk of extinction. At the beginning of the present xxi century
there are about 400 species of mammals in the country, (In 2019, after
almost a decade of study, 15 new species of Argentine mammals were
discovered) more than a quarter (98 species) are in danger of becoming
extinct, almost all of them due to human causes. The species of
ophidians that inhabit Argentina include the boa constrictor, the
poisonous yarara and the rattlesnake.
The forests of Argentina are the set of forest-type ecosystems of
Argentina. The forests of Argentina are located in the neotropical and
Antarctic phytogreographic region. Argentina has seven forest regions of
native forest: the Patagonian Andean forest, the Chaco forest, the
monte, the mision jungle, the Tucuman-Bolivian jungle, the espinal and
the Monte blanco or riparian forest of the Río de la Plata. Argentina
is a country with reduced forest cover (PCFR), that is, at present the
native forest area represents less than 10% of the total area of the
country, in a total of approximately 26 million hectares. It occupies
the 22nd position in countries according to forest area.
Argentina is the ninth country with the greatest natural richness and
biodiversity, most of which is found in its forests. Argentina's
forests provide numerous environmental services, and contain 25,928,636
Gigagrams (Gg) of CO2. The provinces that concentrate most of the
native forests are Chaco, Formosa, Santiago del Estero, Salta, Misiones,
Santa Fe and La Pampa. Santiago del Estero is the province with the
largest area of forests, with 7.7 million hectares.
Argentina
also has 1,287,232 hectares of planted forests (almost entirely with
allochthonous species), according to updated data from the National
Inventory of Plantations by Area. Of these implanted forests, 79% are
located in the provinces of Misiones, Corrientes and Entre Ríos.
The main cause of deforestation in Argentina is the extension of the
agricultural frontier (for soy cultivation and livestock farming). It
is estimated that in the period 1930-2005 the forest mass was reduced by
66%.
Argentina's economy is the second largest in South America according
to 2023 data, surpassed only by Brazil. Together with this, they are
the only South American countries to integrate the G-20, which brings
together most of the largest, richest and industrialized economies on
the planet. Argentina has great natural resources and benefits from it —
especially from its extensive plains of fertile lands -, has a sector
oriented to the exploitation and agricultural export of advanced
technology, with exports of knowledge-based services (SBC) and
technology with a projection of exports for more than 7,000 million in
2022. considerable development of its nuclear and satellite industry,
a diversified import-substituting industrial base, a considerable
scientific and technological development because it is not a developed
country, and a virtually entirely literate population, with a
considerable union membership rate. According to the MSCI country
market classification index, Argentina's economy went from being
considered an "emerging market" to being part of the "standalone"
category in 2021.
At the beginning of the twentieth century,
Argentina was one of the countries with the best prospects, but at the
same time with a rural economy with little industrialization, based on
large estates called "estancias", very socially and territorially
concentrated, Around the same time the Argentine economy represented
just under half of those of Australia and the United States. Between
1975 and 2002, several economic depressions affected its development.
In 2016, the World Bank classified Argentina as a middle-income economy.
In the same year, the country had a per capita income of more than
16,000 US dollars in purchasing power parity (PPP).
According to
a UN annual report on Human Development for the year 2021, Argentina is
the fourth Ibero-American nation with the highest human development
index behind Spain, Chile and Portugal, and ahead of Uruguay.3
In
exports and imports, in 2020, Argentina was the 46th.the largest
exporter and the 52nd.the world's largest importer. In industrial
terms, the World Bank lists the main producing countries every year,
based on the total value of production. According to the 2019 list,
Argentina has the 31st.The world's most valuable industry (US$75.4
billion). It is one of the largest soybean producers in the world,
after the United States and Brazil, with 48 million tons in 2011. The
country is one of the largest meat exporters in the world and its
production has been recognized numerous times as the best quality. It is
the world's leading producer of yerba mate, and is one of the 5 largest
producers of soybeans, corn, lemons, pears and sunflower seeds in the
world, the largest producer of wheat and wool in Latin America, among
other crops. It is the largest wine producer in Latin America, fifth in
the world and the main producer of biodiesel globally. At the
continental level, in 2014 it was in fourth place in oil production
(after Brazil, Venezuela and Colombia) and has the third largest gas
reserves on the planet. The Aguilar Deposit in Jujuy is the largest
concentration of lead and zinc minerals in South America and the Bajo de
la Alumbrera in Catamarca is one of the largest deposits for the
extraction of gold and copper in Latin America, Argentina is the
thirteenth largest gold producer in the world. Argentina is the most
important software producer in South America and ranks second in terms
of auto parts manufacturing, after Brazil.
The country maintains
an external debt of approximately 120 billion dollars (2009), equivalent
to 38.7% of GDP. The amount of it is mainly due to the operations
carried out during the last civic-military dictatorship (1976-1983),330
a period in which the debt grew by 364% and to a massive external
borrowing during the two successive governments of Carlos Menem, due to
the cheap dollar policy carried out by the convertibility law. In the
latter the debt growth was 123%. The ratio of GDP to external debt
reached its critical point in January 2002 when it represented 190% of
GDP. Since then, a combination of debt reduction, moderation in the
taking of new loans and a considerable increase in GDP, reduced the
external debt to just under 41.5% of GDP.
Inflation is another of
the problems that the Argentine economy has faced. In 2023 it closed
with the highest inflation in America with 211.4% inflation, in 2022 it
was 94.8%, in 2020 there was an annual inflation of 36.1%, while that of
2019 was 53.8%. Between the years 1945 to 1975, the average annual rate
was double digits, with a large three-digit peak in 1959 (129.5%), and
peaks above 30% in 1948 (31%), 1951 (36,7%), 1952, 1966 (31,9%), 1971
(34,7%), 1972 (58,5%) and 1973 (60.3%).
The Argentine population,
in a certain way, is used to the ups and downs that affect the national
economy from time to time. Its citizens know how to act in the face of
new unfavorable situations that then return to normal. Various
irregularities in the statistics have led the International Monetary
Fund, in an unprecedented measure, to recommend suspending the country
from the right to vote and other related rights within the organization.
In 2002, during the most critical moment of the crisis, poverty
rates were close to 54% and unemployment rates were close to 21.5%.
During the following years these social indicators managed to reduce
very considerably. In the country, the indigence and poverty indices are
measured from the information of the Consumer Price Index (CPI) carried
out by INDEC based on the estimation of the Basic Food Basket and the
Total Basic Basket. In the first half of 2012, the poverty rate was in
the order of 6.5%, being the lowest in Latin America for that year,
below Uruguay (6.7%). According to ECLAC (which makes the measurement
based on INDEC's own Permanent Household Survey) poverty in Argentina in
2012 was the lowest in Latin America for that year, below even Uruguay
(5.7%). In October 2013, INDEC decided to discontinue publication of the
poverty and indigence indicators due to discrepancies in the
methodology. In January 2016, after the change of government, INDEC was
intervened and modified the measurement methodology, which resulted in a
poverty rate of 32.2% being calculated in the second quarter of 2016.
This index placed the country slightly above the average population
living in poverty in Latin America, 28% according to ECLAC. The
methodology was criticized by various sectors, which pointed out that
for political reasons an overestimation of the poverty and indigence
indices was shown, attributing the situation to previous management.
The World Bank considers "middle class" to those people who receive
an income per day and per capita of between 10 and 50 dollars; with this
parameter, the World Bank established at the end of 2012 that Argentina
had doubled its middle class since 2003, representing an increase of 9.3
million people (25% of the population) being the largest growth in the
Region.
Argentina is part of the regional bloc known as
Mercosur, composed of Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and
Venezuela, while Bolivia is in the process of accession. This bloc is
the largest food producer in the world, has a GDP of 3.3 trillion
dollars, which represents 82.3% of the total GDP of all of South America
and has more than 270 million inhabitants (about 70% of South America),
which makes it the largest, most populous, most economically powerful
and best integrated bloc in Latin America. As a result of the size of
the Mercosur economic bloc, trade relations between Argentina and Brazil
increased to become of primary importance for both countries. Argentina
and Brazil are the two largest, most influential and economically
powerful partners in the bloc, and since the formation of Mercosur there
have been numerous clashes between the two South American powers: the
trade balance between the two countries began to turn into a deficit for
Argentina since June 2003, which was a cause of concern for businessmen
and officials of that country. This deficit was briefly reversed in May
2009 and reversed again in 2012, achieving a surplus with Brazil. In
2006, the governments of Argentina and Brazil signed a series of
bilateral agreements, including the competitive adaptation clause and
agreements related to trade in the automotive sector to reduce the
asymmetries present in the bloc. These asymmetries have been a cause of
complaint from smaller countries such as Uruguay and Paraguay, who are
at a disadvantage compared to the economically larger partners of South
America, Argentina and Brazil, and have criticized the tutelage
exercised by the latter over the bloc.
Agricultural food production is traditionally one of the mainstays of
Argentine exports. Argentina's agriculture is mainly based on the
production of grains (cereals and oilseeds) and the soy chain as a whole
(beans, seeds, oil, food pellets, flour and biodiesel), one of the main
productive chains of the country. Argentina is one of the leaders in
the world market of grains, oils and by-products. Agriculture and
livestock farming in Argentina are intensive and in 2018 the sector
represented 6.14% of GDP. By July 2016, the agricultural sector
employed, together with forestry, hunting and fishing, 337,196 people,
out of a workforce of 17.47 million people, which represented less than
2% of the total. As of 2018, 8.13% of the Argentine population lived in
rural areas, one of the lowest percentages in the world. The Ministry
of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries is the national government
organization in charge of the supervision of agriculture.
Argentina is the world's leading producer of yerba mate, it is one of
the 5 largest producers in the world of soy, corn, lemons, pear and
sunflower seed, one of the 10 largest producers in the world of grapes,
barley, artichoke, tobacco and cotton, and one of the 15 largest
producers in the world of wheat, sugarcane, sorghum and grapefruit.
Argentina is the third largest producer of soybeans in the world, with
37,700,000 tons produced (it is behind the United States and Brazil);
the fourth largest producer of corn in the world, with 43,500,000 tons
produced (behind the United States, China and Brazil); the twelfth
largest wheat producer in the world, with 18,500,000 tons produced; the
eleventh largest sorghum producer in the world, with 1,500,000 tons
produced; the tenth largest grape producer in the world, with 1,900,000
tons produced; in addition to having produced 19,000,000 tons of sugar
cane, mainly in the province from Tucumán. Argentina produces about 2
000 000 tons of sugar with the cane produced. In the same year,
Argentina produced 4,100,000 tons of barley, being one of the 20 largest
producers of this cereal in the world. The country is also one of the
world's largest producers of sunflower seeds: in 2010, it was the
world's third largest producer, with 2,200,000 tons. In 2018, Argentina
also produced 2,300,000 tons of potato, almost 2,000,000 tons of lemon,
1,300,000 tons of rice, 1,000,000 tons of orange, 921,000 tons of
peanuts, 813,000 tons of cotton, 707,000 tons of onion, 656 000 t (six
hundred fifty-six thousand tons) of tomato, 565 000 t (five hundred
sixty-five thousand tons) of pear, 510 000 t (five hundred ten thousand
tons) of apple, 491 000 t (four hundred ninety-one thousand tons) of
oats, 473 000 t (four hundred seventy-three thousand tons) of beans, 431
000 t (four hundred thirty-one thousand tons) of mandarin , 302,000 t
(three hundred and two thousand tons) of yerba mate, 283,000 t (two
hundred and eighty-three thousand tons) of carrot, 226,000 t (two
hundred and twenty-six thousand tons) of peach, 194,000 t (one hundred
ninety-four thousand tons) of cassava, 174,000 t (one hundred
seventy-four thousand tons) of olives, 174,000 t (one hundred
seventy-four thousand tons) of banana, 148,000 t (one hundred
forty-eight thousand tons) of garlic, 114,000 t (one hundred fourteen
thousand tons) of grapefruit, 110,000 t (one hundred ten thousand tons)
of artichoke, in addition to minor productions of other agricultural
products.
In animal husbandry, Argentina is the 4th.º world
producer of beef, with a production of 3 million tons (behind only the
United States, Brazil and China), the 4.The world's 10th largest
producer of honey.the world's largest producer of wool, the 13.er world
producer of chicken meat, the 23.er world pork producer, on the 18th.the
largest producer of cow's milk and the 14th.The world's largest producer
of chicken eggs.
Argentina is one of the 10 largest wine
producers in the world (it was the fifth largest producer in the world
in 2018). Over the years, the production of fine wines has made great
leaps in quality. Mendoza is the largest wine region, followed by San
Juan.
In 2002, the National Agricultural Census conducted by the
National Institute of Statistics and Censuses estimated that 1,233,589
people live on agricultural farms, with the provinces of Buenos Aires,
Córdoba, Mendoza, Misiones and Santa Fe having the largest concentration
of agricultural establishments.
A substantial part of
agricultural production is exported without manufacturing in the form of
grains (soybeans, corn, wheat and sunflower), accounting for 15% of
total exports. The rest is destined as raw material, mainly for the
food industry. Soybeans differ substantially from other agricultural
products by the fact that they are not consumed in the domestic market
and therefore practically all of them are exported. On the contrary,
cereals, dairy products and beef constitute the basis of the
population's food diet, which is why a considerable part of it is
destined for consumption on the domestic market.
Argentina has
been characterized throughout the twentieth century as one of the
world's leading beef exporters. Likewise, Argentine meat continues to be
recognized as the best quality in the world.
Outside of the
agro-livestock economy of the Pampas region, the Argentine economy has
the so-called regional economies, local productive systems generally
supported by the specialized production of a limited group of crops.
Among them are the Cuyo economy supported by the vine and the derived
wine industry; sheep farming in Patagonia, the Patagonian valleys
dedicated to apple and pear; the northwest region, dedicated to sugar,
citrus fruits and tobacco; the province of Misiones and northeast of
Corrientes oriented to yerba mate, tea and wood; cotton in the Chaco
region; rice, mainly in Corrientes; olive trees in the arid mountain
areas; and sheep in Patagonia. Due to the subtropical climate of many
areas of the country, Argentina also produces its own tropical crops,
such as banana, pineapple, mango, passion fruit, avocado, papaya and
coffee, although most of what is produced from these crops is for
domestic consumption, since they are not easy to produce in the country.
Currently, oil in Argentina, along with natural gas and petrochemical
products, is the second largest export product, responsible for 20% of
the total, of which only 4.6% is exported in the raw, without
industrialization. Argentina has a considerable oil and gas wealth,
which allows it to organize a petrochemical production chain that,
together with the soy chain and the metal-mechanical industry,
constitutes the basis of the national economy.
The main deposits
are located in the province of Neuquén, the Gulf of San Jorge and the
province of Salta. The province of Neuquén concentrates about half of
all hydrocarbon production. A network of oil and gas pipelines
transports the products to Bahía Blanca, where the main petrochemical
hub is located, and to the industrial conurbation that stretches between
Rosario and La Plata and whose main hub is the Greater Buenos Aires.
Argentina has the third largest gas reserves on the planet.
According to estimates by the United States Department of Energy,
Argentina ranks fourth in the world in unconventional oil reserves and
second in shale gas. The country has reserves of 27 billion barrels of
unconventional oil.
In the last decade there has been a process
of renationalization of the hydrocarbon business. In 2012, the
nationalization of YPF, the most important hydrocarbon company in the
country, took place, in 2013 the Argentine Bridas group bought the
businesses of the American ExxonMobil in Argentina, Paraguay and
Uruguay, including 530 outlets in Argentina. In 2015, Argentina's Pampa
Energía officially purchased Petrobras Argentina for US$892 million and
about 100 gas stations.
By 2015, YPF reached a 62.5% share of the
Argentine premium naphtha market and 55.7% of super naphtha. During the
first quarter of 2016 YPF showed a drop in its operating profits of 63.8
percent. In the first half of 2017, oil and gas production in Argentina
was the worst in 25 years and was barely above 1981, regressing its
production level by 36 years.
260 wells have been drilled in the
Vaca Muerta unconventional resource area, with an investment of 3000
million dollars, for this venture YPF has partnered with companies such
as Chevron, Dow Chemical Company and Petrobras. YPF increased its
production by 5.6% in 2014 compared to 2011 production, while gas
production rose to 31% for the same period. For this purpose, three
times as many drilling rigs were purchased, from 25 in 2011 to 75 by
2014.
Crude oil extraction decreased by 1.44% during 2014,
according to data from the Ministry of Energy. However, if the focus is
placed on production by provinces, Chubut is the largest producer, with
an increase of 2.8%, but in Santa Cruz there was a decrease of 3.18%.
The production of the province of Neuquén grew by 2.24% thanks to
unconventional resources. In Mendoza, crude oil extraction also
decreased by 3.7%. The four provinces mentioned above represent just
over eight out of every ten cubic meters that are extracted. YPF was the
company that experienced the highest growth in hydrocarbon production,
with an increase of 8.85% (also thanks to the acquisition of Petrobras
assets), while Pan American Energy, which operates in Cerro Dragón,
Chubut province, registered an increase of 2.69%, while Pluspetrol and
Sinopec registered decreases of 4.7% and 15%.
For 2018, crude oil
extraction decreased by 8.1% compared to 2014. However, it grew by 2.1%
compared to last year, being the first year of growth since more than a
decade. In Natural Gas, extraction exceeded that of 2014 by 13.5% (and
by 5.3% that of the previous year). The increase in the amounts
extracted is mainly explained by the development of Vaca Muerta and the
incorporation of new deposits in the Austral Basin and were the result
of the application of important incentives by the National State.
Argentina's oil production in 2017 was 580,000 barrels per day,
falling to 469,000 barrels per day in 2020 due to lack of investments.
Natural gas production also fell between 2015 and 2020, to just under
798,000 barrels of oil equivalent in 2020. After almost twenty years as
an energy exporter, a combination of falling oil production and rising
energy consumption has meant that Argentina became an energy importer in
2011. Although Vaca Muerta has about 16,000,000 barrels of technically
recoverable shale oil and is the second largest shale natural gas
deposit in the world, the country lacks the capacity to explore the
deposit: capital, technology and knowledge are needed that can only come
from offshore energy companies, which view Argentina and its erratic
economic policies with considerable suspicion, not wanting to invest in
the country.
Due to various issues, since the price of a barrel
of unconventional crude oil is around $30 and it is not profitable for
Vaca Muerta, the reduction of fuel consumption during the COVID pandemic
of 2020, the devaluation of the peso and the shortage of dollars, caused
YPF to be worth only one and a half billion dollars by March 2021, not
counting that the company has debts for six billion two hundred million
dollars and judgments still in force. It should be noted that at the
time the government of Cristina Kirchner paid Repsol a figure of five
billion dollars for 51% of YPF. Despite the fact that the company has
the second unconventional gas field in the world and the fourth oil
field located in Patagonia - so there were high expectations around
foreign exchange earnings thanks to the field - neither she, nor her
successor Mauricio Macri, had active policies to activate its potential.
Mining in Argentina benefits from geological features that favor
mining exploitation. The Argentine part of the middle and southern Andes
mountain range ― about 3500 km from north to south, approximately half
the total length of the mountain chain ― which constitutes its western
limit, the mountainous widening of the foothill area in the provinces of
Mendoza, San Juan, La Rioja and Catamarca, the longitudinal valleys
between the two formations and the transverse valleys, scarce in other
sectors of the Andean massif, have a remarkable potential for the
development of mining, largely untapped.
Mining has traditionally
been an unimportant activity in Argentina (compared to countries such as
the United States, Canada, Russia, China, Australia, Chile and Peru,
significant examples in which mining has a great influence on their
economies), but towards the end of the twentieth century the large-scale
metal mining sector began to experience a strong development, after the
Nation and the provinces signed a federal mining agreement and a set of
laws that boosted the; these rules generated the conditions of promotion
and stability demanded by capital-intensive activities. From this and
added to its geological particularities, Argentina began to be
attractive to foreign direct investment (FDI) mining. The opening of
new mines and the continuation of existing operations have been
promoted, sometimes with social opposition due to the environmental cost
of extractive activities.
The most relevant segment in current
values is that of metalliferous mining, followed by that of
non-metalliferous minerals and, finally, that of application rocks. It
is the sixth Argentine export complex for the year 2020, with more than
90% of mining exports originating in only four provinces: Santa Cruz,
San Juan, Catamarca and Jujuy.
By 2019, exports from the metal
mining sector reached USD 5,106 million, representing 7.8% of total
Argentine exports. The complex with the highest foreign sales was gold
and silver, with a share of the total exported by the sector of 55.6%,
followed by steel (22%), aluminum (16%), lithium (3.6%), lead (1.9%) and
other metal ores (0.9%). Argentina was the fourth world producer of
lithium, the ninth world producer of silver, the seventeenth world
producer of gold and the seventh world producer of boron.
Large-scale mining is actively promoted by various sectors, including in
some cases the highest authorities of some provinces. This type of
large-scale mining makes viable projects in areas that are practically
inaccessible to ordinary people, very remote and with little or no
infrastructure. This is so given that this type of project allows to
include in its costs the entire infrastructure for access and production
in those areas, and remain profitable. However, the issue of its
sustainability or sustainability continues to be debated, which, if one
of the first definitions of the concept is considered, is "development
that meets the needs of the present generation, without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
Between
2007 and 2012, FDI (foreign direct investment) oriented to mining grew
at an annual rate of 47%. In 2003, mining generated 79,000 direct and
indirect jobs, compared to 505,000 in 2013. In the case of mineral
exports, which in 2003 amounted to 2900 million pesos, in 2013 they grew
to 23 059 million. Mining has a surplus in its foreign exchange balance
for every year and every month from January 2003 to October 2021, with a
total contribution of US$ 53,813 million net. Between 2003 and 2013, the
investment projects under execution increased from 18 in 2003 to 614 in
2013, while the production of minerals increased tenfold. Since 2014,
the country has been producing 1,000,000 tons of crude ore per year, and
400,000 tons of concentrated iron, of which it exports 50,000 tons to
the United States.
The Aguilar deposit (in the province of Jujuy)
is the largest concentration of lead and zinc minerals in South America,
and Bajo de la Alumbrera (in the province of Catamarca) is one of the
largest deposits for the extraction of gold and copper in Latin America,
Argentina being the fourth world producer of lithium,4 the thirteenth
largest producer of gold, the tenth of silver.
Argentina has the
third world lithium reserves and is in the fourth position in terms of
production of this mineral, this is because part of its territory is
located in an area called the Lithium Triangle, which concentrates 85%
of the world reserves. Argentina holds 32% of South America's lithium
reserves. Different analysts indicated that Argentina will be the
world's second largest lithium producer in 2022 with a projected
production capacity of 290,000 tons per year.
The World Bank lists the main producing countries every year, based
on the total value of production. According to the 2020 list, Argentina
has the 31st.The world's most valuable industry ($53,094 million),
behind Mexico, Brazil and Venezuela, but ahead of Colombia, Peru and
Chile.
In 2019, Argentina was the 31.er world steel producer, on
the 28th.° producer of vehicles, the 22nd.° world producer of beer, the
4th.° world producer of soybean oil and the 3.° world producer of
sunflower oil, among other industrial products.
The Argentine
manufacturing industry is the sector that contributes the most value to
GDP, with 23% of the total in 2005, although its share fell from 17.5%
in 2007 to 15% in 2019. The manufacturing industrial sector is also one
of the main sectors of employment generation (along with trade and the
public sector), with 13% in 2007. By 2017, industrial activity
represented 25.6% of GDP and generated 22.4% of registered employment,
made up of more than 115,000 industrial establishments that generated
1.38 million formal jobs.
In the Argentine industry there are two
large sectors, of similar size, which each contribute approximately one
third of the total exports: the agroindustry, called manufacturing of
agricultural origin (MOA) and the industry of non-agricultural origin,
called manufacturing of industrial origin (MOI).
Among the
manufacturing industries of agricultural origin, the oil industry stands
out, a member of the soybean chain, the fastest growing in the last two
decades, concentrating 31.8% of the total food sector and 20% of the
country's total exports. This is followed by meat (11.1%), milk (7.7%),
coffee and chocolate (7.5%), wine and other alcoholic beverages (5.7%),
bread, pasta and cookies (4.5%), wheat flour (4.5%), beer (4.1%), etc.
The main branches of industries of non-agricultural origin are
automotive manufacturing, which contributes 8.7% of exports, chemical
(5.6%) and metallurgical (5.3%), machinery (3.4%) and plastics (2.6%)
(percentages corresponding to 2006). The paper, gemstone, rubber and
textile industries are also important.
Since 2003, the industry
has undergone a process of competitive revitalization, driven mainly by
the high-dollar economic policy. Although industrial activity is mainly
oriented to substitute imports, the automotive industry contributes 7%
of exports, while the steel sector contributes 3% of the total. Other
important industrial sectors are textiles and footwear, food, chemical,
paper, wood and cement. In the particular case of the food industrial
sector, in recent years, agro-industrial economies have been developed
in many provinces, through the creation of processing and packaging
industries, especially fruit, vegetable, dairy, wine and meat products.
The local white goods production grew strongly from 2003 to 2013, the
production of refrigerators grew by 402% and that of washing machines
and kitchens by 201% each.
Historically the country had important
industrial sectors such as the naval industry related to the Merchant
Fleet of Argentina, which was considerably reduced from the nineties as
a result of the privatization process and which has currently recovered.
The Greater Buenos Aires is the most important industrial area of
the country, where most of Argentina's manufacturing activity is
concentrated. Other important industrial centers are located in Córdoba,
Rosario, Tucumán and Mendoza, San Luis, Santa Fe and Tierra del Fuego,
many of them promoted to decentralize the industry. Between 2009 and
2013, in Tierra del Fuego the production of air conditioners grew from
0.57 to 1.5 million; that of microwave ovens from 0.23 to 0.67 million;
that of televisions from 1.2 to 3 million and that of cell phones, from
0.4 to 14 million. In línea Blanca, Argentina set production records,
with approximately 1.1 million washing machines, 1.1 million
refrigerators and fridges, and 0.6 million kitchens.
The period
2003-2012 stands out for the advance of the production of vehicles,
non-metallic minerals, construction inputs, and metalworking, the
automotive industry in the last decade grew by an average of 17% per
year. Metalworking production increased by 7.5% between 2003 and 2012.
In the case of the textile sector, it has grown by 3.8% per year in
recent years. Other items that improved in the last decade were the
production of paper and cardboard, which went from an average annual
growth of %; that of rubber and plastic 5.2%; and that of publishing and
printing to 6%.
With regard to the industrial sector, it should
be noted that during the period between 2003 and 2013, Argentina has
experienced a trend opposite to the rest of the region in terms of the
share of Industrial GDP in Total GDP. While for Latin America and the
Caribbean as a whole and for Brazil, the share of industrial GDP has
decreased over the period, in Argentina it has increased.
There
was also a strong growth in the production of household appliances, it
is expected that in 2013 a production of 1 056 000 automatic washing
machines, and about 380 000 semi-automatic, which marks a new historical
record.
Automobile production increased from the 169,621 vehicles
manufactured in 2003 to the all-time record of 828,771 units in 2011
alone, which represented a growth of 388%, and which is in line with the
350% increase over the last ten years. The automotive industry is the
second most relevant industrial sector in terms of FDI (foreign direct
investment). In the period 2008-2013, investments of 16,900 million
pesos were registered in automotive companies, aimed at the production
of new models, plant expansion, supplier development and training. The
automotive sector experienced an exponential production growth of almost
400% during the decade 2003-2013.
Since 2003, industrial GDP has
doubled, registering an increase of 105%, with a strong increase in
labor productivity. Diversified growth was also achieved, especially in
high value-added sectors: the automotive sector grew by 409% in this
period; the non-metallic minerals sector by 177%; metalworking by 175%;
textiles by 158%; rubber and plastic by 102%.
From 2003 to 2013,
industrial exports grew by 274%; the share of medium- and
high-technology products in exports increased: in 2003 the share was
17.4%, and in 2013 it reached 25.3%.
In 2015, Argentina
consolidated as the world's fifth largest exporter of trucks. Truck
exports increased by 18% over the same period in 2014, thus surpassing
major global producers such as China, Brazil, Canada and Russia.
Tourism in Argentina is, with 6,759,000 tourists in 2017 according to
the World Tourism Organization, the most visited country in South
America and the second most visited in all of Latin America after
Mexico, being surpassed in America also by the United States (82.9
million) and Canada (27.3 million).
Endowed with an immense
territory with great tourist attractions, a huge variety of climates,
natural wonders, culture, customs and internationally famous cuisines, a
very high degree of development, good quality of life and a
well-prepared infrastructure, Argentina is a recipient of massive
amounts of travelers. The country has the whole range of possible
climates: temperate, hot dry, hot humid, cold dry, cold humid,
semi-arid, steppe, sub-Antarctic, subtropical, mountain cold and a huge
variety of microclimates. The Argentine territory extends from the
highest peaks of the Andes in the west to the great rivers and the
extensive beaches and cliffs of the Argentine Sea in the east, from the
tropical rainforest of the yungas in the north to the valleys, glaciers,
lakes and cold forests of the Andean Patagonia in the south to
Antarctica. The gigantic distances require in most cases air travel.
The valuation of the local currency after the devaluation of 2002
favored the arrival of large numbers of foreign tourists, making the
country more commercially accessible than in the 1990s. As the costs of
traveling abroad became more expensive, many Argentines also turned to
domestic tourism. The rebound of the sector is very noticeable: the
income from inbound tourism occupies the third place in the ranking of
foreign exchange inflow as equivalent of exports. In 2006, the sector
represented 7.41% of GDP, although it must be taken into account that
the outflow of Argentine residents for tourism purposes exceeds the
inflows and is equivalent to 12% of GDP. In 2010, the country received
about $4.93 billion in foreign exchange income. Foreigners recognize
Argentina as a zone free of armed conflicts, terrorism or health
crises. Foreign tourists come mainly from Brazil, Chile, Peru,
Colombia, Mexico, Bolivia, Ecuador, Puerto Rico, Uruguay, Costa Rica,
Venezuela and Paraguay from among the Latin American countries; the
European countries of Spain, Italy, France, the Netherlands, Germany,
Ireland, Portugal, the United Kingdom, Belgium and Switzerland; and of
the United States, Canada and China of the countries of the rest of the
world.
The growth of tourism has been very important in recent
years, the arrival of foreign tourists doubled between 2003 and 2011. In
2011, Argentina stood out as the country with the highest growth in
tourism worldwide. As a result, revenues in dollars registered an
increase of close to 270%. In 2012, 5,211 million dollars entered the
country thanks to tourism. While domestic tourism mobilized more than
25.6 million travelers, generating revenues of 35,228 million pesos in
regional economies.
The capital of the country, Buenos Aires, is
the most visited city in South America. The country also has one of the
seven new wonders of the world (the Iguazu Falls). Other main
destinations are Salta, the Perito Moreno Glacier, San Carlos de
Bariloche, Ushuaia, the Sierras of Córdoba, the Valley of the Moon, the
Atlantic Coast and Peninsula Valdés, among others.
Argentina has
an important variety of mountainous sites, in several of them
mountaineering is practiced and others base their tourist attraction on
the contact with the snow or on their characteristic landscapes. The
main ones are located in the west of the country, in the Andes Mountain
Range, although there are also mountain formations in the Sierras de
Córdoba. Among the sites used for mountaineering is Cerro Aconcagua, the
highest mountain in America. The most important tourist places for their
snow are Bariloche and Las Leñas. An internationally known formation is
the Quebrada de Humahuaca. The Train to the Clouds is one of the three
highest railways in the world. It starts from the province of Salta, and
crosses the Quebrada del Toro passing through Tastil - considered one of
the main pre―Hispanic urban centers of South America - where
archaeological ruins are found.
In recent years, the
implementation of wine tourism has been important, a thematic tourism
based on winemaking with the initiative of the so-called "Wine Routes"
in the provinces of San Juan and Mendoza as well as in the Calchaquí
Valleys of Salta, tourism that attracts numerous foreign tourists to
taste Argentine wines.
Winter tourism has its maximum exponent
in the Los Lagos region, located at the foot of the Andes Mountain Range
in the Provinces of Neuquén, Río Negro, Chubut, Santa Cruz and Tierra
del Fuego Antarctica and South Atlantic Islands; in addition to the
practice of mountain sports, the area has as attractive lakes of glacial
origin and National Parks surrounded by lush vegetation. In the center
of it, the city of San Carlos de Bariloche on the shores of Lake Nahuel
Huapi and a few kilometers from Cerro Catedral, is positioned as the
main winter resort of South America, attracting most of the national and
foreign tourism.
During the summer season, a good part of
Argentine domestic tourism goes to various cities on the Atlantic coast
of the province of Buenos Aires, Mar del Plata being the largest of
them. Most of these cities concentrate their economic activity in the
summer season. The second destination in terms of attracting domestic
tourism is the Sierras de Córdoba, its main tourist center being Villa
Carlos Paz in the Punilla Valley. The Argentine coastline with its river
beaches, thermal resorts and carnivals in the province of Corrientes and
in the province of Entre Ríos, among others, constitutes the third
national tourism destination. Traditionally, the month of January is
the one that generates the greatest demand for rentals.
Transportation in Argentina is based on a complex road network,
frequently crossed by buses and cargo trucks. Buenos Aires and all the
provincial capitals (except Ushuaia and medium-sized municipalities) are
interconnected by the 37,740 km of paved roads. Argentina also has
600,000 km of municipal streets. In the cities the main means of
transport is the collective (bus), with lines that transport millions of
people every day. Buenos Aires offers its inhabitants the subway, the
only one in all of Argentina. In 2021, the country had about 2,800 km of
duplicate roads, most leaving the capital Buenos Aires, connecting it
with cities such as Rosario and Córdoba, Santa Fe, Mar del Plata and
Paso de los Libres (on the border with Brazil), and there are also
duplicate roads that leave Mendoza towards the capital, and between
Córdoba and Santa Fe, among other localities. The historic Buenos Aires
- La Plata Highway and Highway 2 have been joined by the Córdoba -
Carlos Paz, Rosario - Córdoba, Villa Mercedes - Mendoza, Mesopotamian
Highway, among others. In addition, several cities have four-lane
bypasses. The number of vehicles that make up the Argentine automotive
fleet is estimated at 8,527,256, distributed in 5,325,231 cars,
1,370,312 light vehicles, 417,042 cargo and 62,785 for passenger
transportation, not counting 517,449 unspecified units.
The
importance of the train on long-distance journeys is less today,
although it was a priority in the past. The railway system was
privatized in the early 1990s, comprising both cargo transportation and
urban passenger transfer. As of 2006, it has about 31,902 operational
kilometers of railway lines. In total there are about 40 245 km of
railways, but many sections have been abandoned in the stages 1963, 1977
and the 1990s.
Maritime transport is widely used for the
transport of goods. Argentina has about 11,000 km of navigable
waterways. The waterway network consists of the La Plata, Paraná,
Paraguay and Uruguay rivers. The main river ports are those of Zárate
and Campana. Most of the products imported by Argentina arrive in the
country by sea. The main ports are the following: Buenos Aires, La
Plata-Ensenada, Bahía Blanca, the Up-River ports, Mar del Plata,
Quequén-Necochea, Comodoro Rivadavia, Puerto Deseado, Puerto Madryn and
Ushuaia. The port of Buenos Aires is historically the first in
individual importance, but the area known as Up-River, which extends
along 67 km of the Santa Fe portion of the Paraná River, brings together
17 ports that concentrate 50% of the country's total exports.
The
country contains numerous international and domestic airports. The Gran
Buenos Aires has 2 air terminals due to the high demand that exists.
Ezeiza International Airport, about 35 km from the center of Buenos
Aires, is the largest in the country and one of the Moderna... It has
facilities for cargo handling and storage. The direct entrance to the
Argentine capital is the Jorge Newbery Airport, where it receives a
large number of domestic and regional flights, mainly from neighboring
countries. The company Aerolineas Argentinas, which was privatized in
1990 and is now again in the hands of the Argentine state, operates
domestic and international flights. There are also several domestic
airlines. The main international airlines use Buenos Aires as a final
destination or mandatory stopover on their routes.
The electricity sector in Argentina is organized from the
articulation of entities or companies that develop the generation,
transport and distribution of energy.
In 2020, Argentina was the
18th.º largest natural gas producer in the world (44.6 million cubic
meters); the 28th.º largest oil producer in the world (440 000
barrels/day); the 21.er largest hydropower producer in the world, with
11.3 GW of installed capacity; the 27th.º largest wind energy producer
in the world, with 2.6 GW of installed power; and the 42nd.The largest
solar energy producer in the world, with 0.7 GW of installed power.
The wind potential of the Patagonia region is considered gigantic,
with estimates that the area could provide enough electricity to sustain
the consumption of a country like Brazil alone. However, Argentina has
infrastructure deficiencies to carry out the transmission of electric
energy from uninhabited areas and with a lot of wind to the large
centers of the country.
Electricity generation reached 129,815
GWh in 2014, which represents a growth of just over 40% compared to the
91,845 GWh registered in 2004. 64% was generated in thermal plants, 31%
hydraulic, 4% nuclear and only 1% wind and solar.
The development
of energy generation facilities from renewable resources is in full
swing. By the end of 2014, there was an installed capacity of 187 MW of
wind power generation in the Patagonian region and northwest Argentina
and 8 MW of solar power generation in the Cuyo region.
Argentina
has great tidal energy generation potential, given the conditions of the
currents and the amplitude of tides of the Patagonian coast. In
December 2014, the first two teams were installed in the province of
Santa Cruz to obtain data on the potential of this resource.
This
nation was the first in Latin America to build a nuclear power plant, it
currently has three nuclear fields (Atucha I "Juan Domingo Perón",
Atucha II "Dr Néstor Kirchner" and "Embalse") and a fourth in the
construction period.
The development of geothermal energy
presents practically no remarkable advances, despite the presence of
thermal tributaries and the evidence of potential volcanic activity in
various parts of the country.
The transmission of electric energy
is carried out through a network of high voltage lines and trunk
distribution of 33,453 km in length, which represents an increase of
more than 65% in the length of the existing network system in 2004.
The distribution of electric energy is carried out by companies
that, at the end of 2014, totaled more than 40 entities, covering an
area of 2,262,664 km2, which represents just over 80% of the country's
surface and providing the service to 13,496,085 small consumption users
(demand less than 4,000 kWh/bimonthly), most of them residential users.
In 2014, 30,880,627 m3 of oil and 41,483,811 million cubic meters of
natural gas were produced. At the same time, the discovery of large
volumes of hydrocarbons in unconventional reservoirs (I.E. shale gas)
has gained notoriety in recent years. According to a report, Argentina
would be in the second position worldwide in terms of this type of
reservations.
Science and technology in Argentina constitutes a set of policies,
plans and programs carried out by the State, national universities and
institutes, companies, and other national and international
organizations and associations oriented towards research, development
and innovation (R+D+i) in Argentina, as well as scientific and
technological infrastructures and facilities. According to 2018 data,
the country invests 0.49% of its GDP in research and development, with
67% of this investment made by the state. According to the Global
Innovation Index, by the World Intellectual Property Organization, in
2022, Argentina ranked 69th among 132 countries in the world in
innovation and 8th among the countries of the Latin American and
Caribbean region; while in 2023 it ranked 73rd.
Public scientific
and technological activity is coordinated and planned mainly by the
Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MinCyT), although
research entities and organizations can be found in other ministries.
The MinCyT draws its guidelines through strategic plans such as
Innovative Argentina 2020. One of its main policies during the first
decades of the xxi century is the Raíces Program that allowed to
repatriate more than 1000 scientists reversing the trend of brain drain
that existed in Argentina. The country's scientific activity is mainly
concentrated in the CONICET and the national universities, while
technological production has as its axis various sectoral state
institutions such as the CNEA, the INTA, the INTI and the CONAE, among
others.
The main scientific research organization in Argentina is
the National Council of Scientific and Technical Research (CONICET). It
is an institution dependent on the MinCYT that covers all areas of
knowledge and is considered one of the most prestigious in America. The
CONICET is organized into institutes, which enjoy thematic and
scientific autonomy and its staff exceeds 20,000 people including
researchers, professionals, technicians and doctoral and postdoctoral
fellows.
Argentina has developed a solid research tradition in
the areas of biomedicine, physics and agricultural sciences. Research in
biomedicine gave the country three Nobel Prizes: Bernardo Houssay (1947,
the first in Latin America), Luis Federico Leloir (1970) and César
Milstein (1984). If the Nobel Peace Prizes are included, Argentina
reaches a total of five Nobel Prizes, being the most awarded Latin
American country. They could be joined by the biologist Sandra Myrna
Díaz who received the Nobel Peace Prize as a member of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change in 2007. In the field of
physics, Juan Martín Maldacena received the Yuri Milner Prize for
Fundamental Physics in 2012.
In subjects such as computer
science, nanotechnology and biotechnology, well-structured programs are
developed that tend to concentrate efforts and give meaning to the
capabilities that are developed. In biotechnology, milestones such as
the production of hormones in cloned cows and the development of new
transgenic varieties of cereals and legumes tolerant to agrochemicals or
stress stand out. In computer science there was a sustained increase in
the number of software companies after the passage of the Software Law
and its successor the Law of Knowledge Economy.
Argentina has
important capabilities in nuclear and satellite technology, being a
pioneer in Latin America. It is the only country on the American
continent - along with the United States ― that produces and exports
satellites. In the nuclear field, it produces the complete cycle of
nuclear energy and provides nuclear reactors to various countries,
designed and produced in the country. The main actors in both areas are
the National Atomic Energy Commission (CNEA), the National Space
Activities Commission (CONAE) and the public company INVAP. The most
important educational center on the subject is the Balseiro Institute,
considered one of the most prestigious scientific institutions in the
country and the region.
Among some of the most eminent advances
in weapons development is the AS-25K missile, one of the latest
developments of CITEFA and which will be presented in air-to-sea and
air-to-surface versions. It also builds helicopters, airplanes and
military and civilian radars for air traffic control and the fight
against drug trafficking.
See also: History of science and technology
in Argentina, Center for Scientific and Technical Research of the Armed
Forces, CONICET, Applied Research and National Institute of Industrial
Technology (too many parameters in {{VT}}).
Telecommunications in Argentina are provided in the form of
telegraphic, telephone, postal, broadcast of television channels, radios
and provision of internet connection covering the entire national
territory.
The postal service, which covers the entire country,
is of mixed ownership (private and state). The main exponent of the
sector is the Argentine Post.
There are almost 1500 radio
stations, of which 260 are AM and 1150 are FM.
The press of Argentina has its origins in 1801 with the appearance of
the Mercantile Telegraph and continues to this day with a wide variety
of newspapers, periodicals and magazines. There are more than 200
newspapers circulating in Argentina, of which the best-selling are
published in Buenos Aires: Clarín (the one with the largest
circulation), La Nación and Diario Popular. Among the best sellers in
the interior are: La Gaceta (Tucumán), La Voz del Interior (Córdoba) and
Los Andes (Mendoza).
The oldest newspaper in the country that
continues to be published is the Capital, Rosario (Santa Fe), so it is
called the dean of the Argentine press.
The population of the Argentine Republic, according to the
preliminary or provisional result of the census that was conducted on
Wednesday, May 18, 2022, amounts to 46,044,703 inhabitants.
Argentina is a country with a low population density (16.5 hab/km2),
very concentrated in the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area (AMBA) where 37%
of the total population resides, mostly urban, 92% as of 2011 and with a
large proportion of people over 60 years old (14.3%). It has high life
expectancy rates (76.58 years) and literacy (99%).
The current ethnic composition of Argentina is, in chronological
order, the result of the interaction of the pre-Columbian
indigenous-native population with a population stream of Iberian
conquerors and colonizers and with another of African-sub-Saharan
origin, forcibly immigrated and enslaved (which gave rise to the
Afro-Argentine population), all in the colonial era and the first half
of the nineteenth century.
To this population, which formed the
totality of the Argentine population until about 1860, was added the
flow coming from the great wave of European/Asian immigration, mostly
Italian and Spanish. This immigration wave happened in the second half
of the nineteenth century and the first half of the twentieth century,
although the most important immigration, quantitatively speaking,
occurred between 1880 and 1930.
Since the mid-twentieth century,
the ethnic composition was influenced by the great internal migrations
from the countryside to the city, and from the north and the coast to
the large cities of the country. Finally, the Argentine territory has
always received a considerable migratory flow from other South American
countries, mainly highlighting the communities from Paraguay and
Bolivia; and, to a lesser extent, those from Chile, Uruguay, Peru,
Colombia and Venezuela.
As a result of the continuity of the
original peoples and the immigration flows, the Argentine population has
considerable ethnic communities. In particular, there are Qom, Wichi,
Aimara, coya, Mapuche, Neapolitan, Calabrian, Lombard, Murcian,
Extremaduran, Asturian, Basque, Leonese, Catalan, Galician, Castilian,
navarre, Valencian, Balearic, Andalusian, Canary, Riojan, Cantabrian,
Aragonese, French, German, Arabic, Ukrainian, Croatian, Polish, Jewish,
Armenian, Chilean, Uruguayan, English, Peruvian, Japanese, Chinese and
Korean communities , among others.
Like the United States,
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Brazil or Uruguay, Argentina is
considered a "country of immigration" due to the strong impact that
migratory flows have had on the ethnic composition of the population.
Miscegenation has played a role in the ethnic composition of the
Argentine population. The immigration flows during the colonial era and
then during the time of the great overseas immigration (1850-1930) were
mostly made up of single men who in several cases mixed in Argentina
with indigenous or African-origin women or their descendants.
Various genetic studies generally agree that the proportion of the
Amerindian genetic component is considerable, as well as the certain
indication of African contribution, there being a large population whose
genetics corresponds to the Latin American mix to varying degrees.
The process of miscegenation registers an unusual intensity in
Argentina, not only with extensive sexual exchanges between the three
main ethnic-cultural branches (Eurasian, indigenous and African), but
also between the dozens of particular ethnic groups that make up each of
them (Italians, Spaniards, Poles, Arabs, Germans, Irish, French,
Russians, Turks, Ukrainians, British, Swiss, Welsh, Croats, Dutch,
Belgians, Czechs, Lebanese, Syrians, Jews, Mapuches, diaguitas, collas,
guarani, bantu , yoruba, etc.). Territorially, the genetic composition
varies between the different regions, provinces and cities, largely
influenced by the large internal migrations from the countryside to the
city, from the north to the Pampas region and to Patagonia from the rest
of the country.
In the nineteenth century, Argentina established
a state policy of integration, intentionally aimed at diluting
particular ethnic identities. This fact has been referred to in the
national culture with the term "melting pot" (equivalent to the American
melting pot) and has been supported in a more or less variable way by
successive governments, educational institutions and the most
influential media. Various scholars have questioned the traditional
view of the melting pot, considering it a myth and highlighting the
existence of a large ethnic and social gap between descendants of
Europeans and non-Europeans, in which mechanisms of racism and ethnic
discrimination appear, invisibility and forced assimilation, present in
Argentine society.
Argentina was formerly a country of considerable immigration, mainly
in the period between the decades of 1880 and 1930, where mainly Spanish
and Italian immigrants starred in the last contribution to the ethnic
composition of the country. Argentines had an increase as emigrants from
the last third of the twentieth century. The International Organization
for Migration (IOM) indicated in 2012 the number of Argentines abroad at
971,698. By far, the two favorite destinations of Argentines are Spain
(30.0%) and the United States (23.3%) in 1st and 2nd place,
respectively, which together account for more than half of the total
number of Argentines abroad (53.3%). Considering data from the Global
Migration Data Portal as of 2020, there are 1.1 million Argentine
emigrants in the world (second generation and later are not necessarily
counted). This represents an increase of 54.9% compared to the number
of emigrants in 2010 and implies that emigrants represent 2.5% of the
total number of people born in Argentina.
Argentine emigration
was concentrated mainly in several historical periods, the first after
the coup d'état of 1966 that produced a highly qualified emigration of
technicians and scientists, then during the military dictatorship of
1976 to 1983, then during the year 1989 and 1991 during a process of
hyperinflation there was a massive emigration to the USA. USA. and
Europe and the second during the crisis of December 2001, which occurred
in the government of Fernando de la Rúa, Argentina became one of the
countries with the highest emigration in the region, with the majority
of Argentines leaving being highly qualified professionals.
Despite this, Argentina has a low percentage of citizens residing
outside its borders in proportion to the total population, being 2.22%
in 2017 according to the United Nations (UN) and compared to other
countries in the region (in perspective, Paraguay, a nation bordering
Argentina, has 12.56% of its citizens living abroad, one of the highest
rates in all of Latin America).
According to two successive reports of the United Nations
Organization (UN), in 2015, Argentina had 2,086,302 immigrants and, in
2017, 2,164,524, equivalent to 4.6% and 4.9% of the population,
respectively, establishing this growing trend.
The rate of
foreigners in proportion to those born in the country is very small
compared to other nations (121.º), but measured in absolute terms,
Argentina is the largest recipient of immigrants in all of Latin
America, as well as the one with the largest number in the region and
ranks 28th.º in the world ranking.
The indigenous, aboriginals or natives of Argentina are the set of
communities, families and individuals who self-recognize or recognized
descendants of the Native Americans who inhabited the limits of the
current Argentine territory at the time of the first European contact
with the territory in the sixteenth century. By extension, these names
can also refer to those of equal status who migrated to the current
Argentine territory from neighboring countries and their descendants,
once integrated into the national indigenous set.
According to
the online list updated on February 23, 2024 that the National Institute
of Indigenous Affairs publishes on its website, that public body
recognizes the existence of 1,878 indigenous communities in Argentina,
belonging to the 39 indigenous peoples that it recognizes in turn.
These numbers, however, do not count other indigenous communities that
for various reasons are not yet registered or in contact with national
or provincial agencies, so that with each quarterly update of the data
the numbers have been increasing, and there have even been new
self-recognitions of indigenous peoples in recent years.
Health in Argentina is guaranteed by the public health system, the
social works system and the private health system. About 37.62% of the
population is served by the public system and 62.38% by social and
prepaid works. Argentina also has a comprehensive schedule of
vaccination and HIV treatments and assisted fertilization for its
population.
The regulation of the health system is in charge of
the Ministry of Health, dependent on the Executive Power. The percentage
of health expenditure corresponding to GDP was 8.9% in 2003 and had
increased to 10.2% by 2015. This figure is considerably higher than the
Latin American average and is close to the values of European countries,
it is ranked 49th out of 191 countries. In addition, the country has a
favorable ratio of 4.06 doctors per thousand inhabitants.
Argentine medicine is prestigious globally for having been the inventor
of various techniques and discoveries that are used all over the world
today and for the research that is constantly maintained in all medical
specialties.
The diseases that most affect the population are
Chagas disease, the main endemic disease in Argentina, which is
estimated at two million infected, AIDS, which affects 5,000 new people
every year, and tuberculosis.
The National Social Security
Administration, the National Institute of Social Services for Retirees
and Pensioners, the Superintendency of Occupational Risks, the Obra
Social del Personal Rural y Estibadores de la República Argentina, the
Employees Union of the Former Caja de Subsidios Familiares para el
Personal de la Industria, the Institute of Social Security of the
Province of Buenos Aires and the Union of Civil Personnel of the Nation
are full members and participants of the Inter-American Conference on
Social security (CISS).
In 2018, INDEC carried out a national survey in localities with more
than 5,000 inhabitants, from which it emerged that 10.2% of the total
population suffers from some type of disability.q
Of this total,
48.8% have some motor disability, with 30.0% having walking
difficulties, 6.1% with upper limb difficulties, and 12.9% with both.
Another 25% of all people with disabilities have visual difficulties, of
which 3.6% — almost one out of every thousand inhabitants — are
completely blind. Of the total number of people with disabilities, 20.8%
have hearing difficulties, of which 49% cannot hear without a hearing
aid — 1% of the total population. Of the total number of people with
difficulties, 7.9% have speech difficulties and of these, 10.6% — just
under one out of every thousand inhabitants — cannot speak at all. 12.3%
have difficulties understanding what they hear or learning what they
study or are taught — 1.25% of the total population —, among which one
in eight claims not to be able to learn anything.
The same study
also details that the percentage of people over fourteen years of age
with a disability who perform some paid task is 35.9%, but reaching
64.3% for the age group between 30 and 49 years, and decreasing to 13.3%
for 65 years of age and over.
Urbanization in Argentina is the reflection in Argentina of the
process of population agglomeration that was pronounced in the world at
the beginning of the nineteenth century where the concentration of the
world's population in urban systems with a population greater than
20,000 inhabitants went from 2.4% in 1800 to 9.2% in 1900. By 2011, 92%
of the Argentine population lived in cities.
Among the main
factors of the rapid growth in urban areas, is that of mainly European
immigration to urban centers. In particular, to Buenos Aires, Córdoba,
Mendoza and Rosario.
In 1869, Argentina had 11% of its population
in agglomerations of more than 100,000 inhabitants, a concentration five
times higher than the world average, similar to that of the United
States and approximately twice the concentration of the European
population.
In 1914, the urban population surpassed the rural
population for the first time. One of the main factors of the rapid
growth of urban areas was the great European immigration that was
developing the main urban centers of the country such as Buenos Aires,
Córdoba and Rosario.
In 1960 fifteen cities had a population
exceeding 100,000 inhabitants, these cities representing 71% of the
urban population. At that time, the urban areas of Argentina constituted
59% of the population, the same as in the United States, slightly higher
than Oceania (53%) and below England, a country that led the percentage
of urban conglomerations since the early nineteenth century, with 69%.
In 1970 Argentina reached 78.5% in its urbanization index and in
1975 it exceeded 80% by reaching 80.7%. In 1990, the population in urban
areas reached 86.9%, being an important factor since the 50s, as
throughout Latin America, the flow of internal immigration from rural
areas to urban areas due to unfavorable economic and social conditions.
In 2001, the urbanization of the country reached 89.3% of the total
population. By 2011, 92% of the Argentine population lived in city565
being, along with Belgium, Denmark and Singapore, one of the most
urbanized countries in the world. 47.6% of the total population of
Argentina was concentrated in 8 urban agglomerations, 12,806,866 people
lived in the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area, 31.9% of the total
population, 3.6% in the Greater Córdoba 1,454,536, 1,237,664 in the
Greater Rosario, 3.1% in the Greater Mendoza 937,154, 2.3%. Gran San
Miguel de Tucumán 800,087 people 2%, La Plata 643,133 1.6%, in Mar del
Plata 593,337 1.5% and in Gran Salta 539,187 1.5%.
In contrast,
there are 2,000 small towns in Argentina, of which there are about 800
in crisis due to depopulation and 90 that have disappeared in recent
years. In 1991, just over 4 million people lived in rural areas, a
figure that fell to 3.4 million in 2020 despite the population
increasing (more than 7 million) during that period, according to
research by the Latin American Economic Research Foundation (FIEL), 40%
of rural villages were at risk of extinction in 2010.
The cities of Argentina vary their definition in Argentina according
to each province. According to the Organic Law of Municipalities of the
Province of Santa Fe 2756, a locality acquires the status of a
municipality when it exceeds 10,000 inhabitants. In the Province of
Buenos Aires, more than 30,000 inhabitants are required for the
localities located in the partidos-municipios belonging to the
metropolitan area of Buenos Aires (which are 40 partidos-municipios
touched by or within the provincial route 6), and 5,000 inhabitants in
the rest of the partidos-municipios, in addition to other conditions,
according to provincial law 10,806.
Approximately, more than 92%
of the Argentine population lives in cities. There are 91 urban
agglomerations that exceed 100,000 inhabitants. This growth is due to
the large migratory flows that took place at the beginning of the
twentieth century, and industrialization.
Argentina is often
described as a macrocephalic country, due to the enormous influence of
its capital, Buenos Aires, in almost all aspects of national life. With
a metropolitan area of more than twelve million inhabitants, it is the
main urban center of the country, concentrating 31% of the population
and 40% of the gross product in just 0.14% of the territory. In a
distant second place is the Great Cordoba, whose population is almost
ten times smaller.
The culture of Argentina is marked by the multiethnic and
multicultural character of its population, the strong syncretism of its
forms of expression and a positive assessment of progress and modernity,
in which many ethnic identities and a sense of belonging to European and
Latin American cultures are combined, not without conflicts, with some
Asian and African contributions.
The Argentine writer Ernesto
Sabato has reflected on the nature of Argentine culture as follows:
Once the primitive Hispanic-American reality in this Silver Basin has
been fractured by immigration, its inhabitants have become something
dual, with all the dangers but also with all the advantages of that
condition: because of our European roots we endearingly link the
interior of the nation with the enduring values of the old world;
because of our condition as Americans, through the interior folklore and
the old Castilian that unifies us, we are linked to the rest of the
continent, somehow feeling the vocation of that great Homeland that San
Martín and Bolívar imagined.
Ernesto Sabato.
The Argentine
culture has as its origin the mixture of others that were found during
the years of the immigrations. As for their ideologies, their liberal or
social democratic thoughts and languages stand out, a lot of value to
freedom, also democracy and respect for human rights.
There is a
great diversity of cultural activities in the country and an important
artistic activity, in theater, painting, sculpture, music, literature.
They are offered in all the most important cities of the country and
mainly in Buenos Aires, daily, conferences, concerts, exhibitions,
museums, courses, theater and ballet performances. Cinemas and
entertainment venues abound in all the largest cities. The popular music
like the tango, the folklore (initially the tango was pure urban
folklore of the cities of Buenos Aires and Rosario but with the end of
the "Old Guard" and the beginning of the tangos song of Pascual Contursi
and Carlos Gardel ceased to be strictly part of the Argentine folklore
to cease to be folklore stricto sensu to already have known authors and
protagonists, in any case the tango has always remained, despite its
international diffusion, as one of the typical Argentine music along
with the other Argentine folk music) and Argentine national rock (called
between the 1960s and 1980s "Progressive music" and "New Argentine urban
music") is performed and danced in specialized fields and in places of
mass attendance.
Argentine literature, that is, the set of literary works produced by
writers from Argentina, is one of the most prolific, relevant and
influential of the Spanish language and occupies a prominent place
within Spanish literature and universal literature.
A
transcendent element in the history of Argentine literature was the
counterpoint between the Florida Group and the Boedo Group, which
happened in the first decades of the twentieth century. The Florida
Group is well known for meeting at the Richmond Confectionery on Florida
Street in Buenos Aires and publishing in the magazine Martín Fierro,
with authors such as the aforementioned Jorge Luis Borges, Leopoldo
Marechal, Ricardo Guiraldes, Victoria Ocampo, Oliverio Girondo, among
others and artists such as Antonio Berni, against the Boedo Group that
brought together writers such as Roberto Arlt, Leonidas Barletta, Álvaro
Yunque and artists such as Homero Manzi and received visits from Juan de
Dios Filiberto composer of the tango Caminito, of the humblest roots and
gathered in the geography of the Boedo neighborhood at the Café El
Japonés on Avenida Boedo and published at the Claridad Publishing House,
they constituted a literary phenomenon with social roots that enriched
Argentine literature with the literary production of these authors.
Other renowned writers are José Hernández —author of El Gaucho
Martín Fierro (translated into more than 70 languages)—, Adolfo Bioy
Casares, Ernesto Sabato and Juan Gelman (winners of the Miguel de
Cervantes Prize), Julio Cortázar, Eduarda Mansilla, Alfonsina Storni,
Roberto Arlt, Silvina Ocampo, Sara Gallardo, Manuel Puig, Hebe Uhart,
Antonio Di Benedetto, Alejandra Pizarnik, Rodolfo Walsh, Ezequiel
Martínez Estrada, Leopoldo Lugones and Olga Orozco, among many others.
The music of Argentina, due to its great territorial extension and
its wide demographic diversity, is characterized by a considerable
variety of its musical culture, highlighting tango, folk projection
music, "national" rock, bolero, romantic ballad, cumbia, quartet,
electronics, as well as classical music and ballet.
Tango is a
musical style and a dance born in the suburbs of Buenos Aires and
Montevideo, with international diffusion, which has as its maximum
exponents Carlos Gardel and Astor Piazzolla. The dance highlights the
worldwide success of Argentine Tango, created in 1983 by Claudio Segovia
and Héctor Orezzoli, with dancers such as Juan Carlos Copes, María
Nieves and Virulazo. Every year, the Tango Dance Festival and World
Championship is held in Buenos Aires.
In Argentina, the so-called
folk music or simply folklore, inspired by traditional rural genres, has
a wide diffusion. Argentine folk music has distinct regional
characteristics: in litoral music, genres such as chamamé and chamarrita
predominate; in Southern Patagonian folklore, genres such as milonga,
triunfo and malambo predominate; in cuyo folklore, cueca and tonada
predominate; in northern folklore, chacareras and zambas predominate;
and in the folklore of the Andean northwest, carnavalitos, sayas and
taquiraris predominate. Among the performers and composers, Ariel
Ramírez, Los Fronterizos, Los Chalchaleros, The Salta Duo, Atahualpa
Yupanqui, Suma Paz, Mercedes Sosa, Ramona Galarza, Soledad Pastorutti
and Los Nocheros are among the most important exponents of these genres.
Among the various folk music meetings, the Cosquín Festival in Córdoba
and the Jujuy carnival stand out.
The Argentine national rock has
a wide development since the late 1960s and a strong influence on the
Ibero-American rock sung in Spanish widely known throughout the
continent. It has outstanding exponents such as the founding groups Los
Gatos, Almendra, Manal and Sui Generis, as well as Patricio Rey and his
Ricotta Roundlets, Soda Stereo and musicians such as Luis Alberto
Spinetta, Charly García, Indio Solari and Gustavo Cerati. The most
successful festivals today are Cosquín Rock and Quilmes Rock, held
annually.
The bolero and romantic ballad has South American
famous performers and composers such as Sandro de América, Los Cinco
Latinos, Mario Clavell, Estela Raval, Chico Novarro, Vicentico and
Patricia Sosa. Cumbia, also called "movida tropical" or "bailanta", with
a simpler rhythm than the original Colombian model, highlighting in this
genre the Wawancó, Los Palmeras and Karina La Princesita. In the
province of Córdoba, the popularity of the quartet stands out.
Buenos Aires is the main one chosen for the concerts of foreign artists
when making their tours, and it is usually the scene of electronic music
in Latin America, with important parties such as the South American
Music Conference, the Creamfields that with its convocation of more than
60,000 people, became one of the most important in the world and the
Ultra Music Festival Buenos Aires. The city, along with Mar del Plata
and Bariloche, also have their own style of electronic music.
Based at the National Conservatory of Music and the Teatro Colón, a
solid school of classical music and dance has been developed. In
classical music, composers such as Amancio Alcorta, Juan Pedro Esnaola,
Alberto Williams, Arturo Berutti, Carlos López Buchardo, Alberto
Ginastera, Carlos Guastavino, Mauricio Kagel, Marta Lambertini, Alicia
Terzian, Gerardo Gandini and Pía Sebastiani stand out; performers such
as Martha Argerich and conductors such as Daniel Barenboim. In classical
dance, Jorge Donn, Norma Fontenla, José Neglia, Julio Bocca, Paloma
Herrera, Ludmila Pagliero and Marianela Núñez stand out, among others.
Among the unclassifiable creations of Argentine music, the work of
María Elena Walsh stands out - oriented to a large extent but not
exclusively to children's audiences - and the humorous-musical shows of
the ensemble Les Luthiers.
The cinema of Argentina is one of the most developed of Latin
American cinema. It has the highest average number of rooms per person
in Latin America. Throughout the twentieth century, Argentine
production, supported by the state and supported by the work of a long
list of directors and artists, became one of the leading in the world in
Spanish. The first animated, silent and sound feature films were made by
Quirino Cristiani. Two films were awarded the Academy Award for best
international film, The Official Story (1985), directed by Luis Puenzo
and The Secret of His Eyes (2009), by Juan José Campanella. Argentine
cinema has won numerous international awards: the Goya Awards, those of
the Berlin International Film Festival, Cannes Film Festival and, in the
region, those of the Havana International Festival of New Latin American
Cinema, among others.
According to INCAA statistics, the most
watched films of Argentine cinema are Wild Tales (2014), by Damián
Szifron (3.9 million), The Clan (2015), directed by Pablo Trapero (2.6
million), The Secret of his eyes (2009), by Campanella (2.4 million),
Metegol (2013), by Campanella (2.1 million) and The Theft of the Century
(2020), directed by Ariel Winograd (2 million). Worthy of mention are
Nazareno Cruz and the Wolf (1975), by Leonardo Favio (3.3 million), The
Saint of the Sword (1970), by Leopoldo Torre Nilsson and Juan Moreira
(1973), by Favio, (2.41 million).
From the time of classic
Argentine cinema, in the 1930s and 1940s, The Gaucho War (1942), by
Lucas Demare and those starring Niní Marshall, Libertad Lamarque and
Hugo del Carril stand out. In erotic cinema, Armando Bó's films starring
Isabel Sarli were very popular throughout Latin America.
The Argentine theater, although with isolated antecedents in
indigenous rites, African manifestations and colonial and postcolonial
representations of Spanish-American origin, has its origin as such of
the Creole circus in the last decades of the nineteenth century, with an
eminently popular character, combining elements from various dramatic
disciplines, such as pantomime, farce and critical monologue. The
Argentine theater took on an identity through particular expressions
such as the sainete —mainly -, the comic piece, the grotesque, and the
Creole magazine. A dramatic variety of great importance for popular
culture have been radio drama and teleteatre.
Due to the
phenomenon of urban concentration known as macrocephaly that affects
Argentina, much of the country's theatrical activity is concentrated in
the city of Buenos Aires. The axis of theatrical activity is Corrientes
Avenue, in whose area of influence many of the most important theaters
and halls are located, such as the Colón Theater, the General San Martín
Theater, the Presidente Alvear Theater, the Cervantes National Theater,
the Gran Rex Theater and the Maipo Theater. The city in total has more
than 300 theaters.
In other cities of the country there are
important theaters, such as the Teatro Argentino in La Plata, the Teatro
El Círculo in Rosario, the Teatro del Libertador General San Martín (ex
Rivera Indarte) in Córdoba, the Teatro 3 de Febrero in Paraná and the
Teatro Vera in the city of Corrientes, the Teatro San Martín and the
Teatro Mercedes Sosa in San Miguel de Tucumán, the Auditorio Juan
Victoria in the city of San Juan, among others.
The painting of Argentina is all the pictorial production carried out
in the territory of Argentina during all the centuries. Like his
sculpture, Argentine painting is nourished by novel styles with European
and Amerindian influences.
The third decade of the twentieth
century represented a fundamental stage for the development of painting,
making great events related to new aesthetic orientations. It is for
this reason that the period between 1920 and 1930 is considered as the
formation of Moderna Argentinean painting, having exponents such as
Antonio Berni, Gyula Kosice ― founder of the Madí Movement, the movement
of the New Argentine Figuration―, Raúl Soldi and León Ferrari; and
exponents of popular painting such as Florencio Molina Campos and Benito
Quinquela Martín.
Argentina is through comics one of the countries with the highest
production worldwide and the most important in Latin America, living its
"golden age" between the 1940s and 1960s with subsequent creative and
commercial peaks between the 1970s and 1980s. The theorist Oscar
Masotta synthesized in 1970 his contributions in the development of his
own models of action comics (Oesterheld, Hugo Pratt), comic (Roberto
Battaglia, Divito, Quino) and folk (Walter Ciocca) and the presence of
four great cartoonists (José Luis Salinas, Arturo del Castillo, Hugo
Pratt and Alberto Breccia).
Argentine comics also have important
representatives of international fame; at least throughout the twentieth
century, Argentine graphic humor has occupied a pre-eminent place in the
genre, thanks to artists such as Quino, with his famous character of
Mafalda, Guillermo Mordillo and Roberto Fontanarrosa. In the fiction
comic, Héctor Germán Oesterheld and Francisco Solano López stand out
with the work El eternauta. The work of Manuel García Ferré is relevant
in children's comics, with characters such as Hijitus and Anteojito, as
well as magazines and animated films.
It is also worth noting the
important tradition of comic magazine publications that have been very
important within the world of comics in Spanish, as is the case of
Fierro.
The languages of Argentina comprise both the Spanish language (there
called Castilian) and the indigenous languages historically spoken by
indigenous peoples, or the allochthonous languages spoken stably and for
generations by migrant communities and their descendants, who have
preserved or used them for prolonged historical periods.
Currently, Spanish is the predominant language, understood and spoken as
a first or second language by almost the entire population of Argentina,
which according to the 2022 census reaches 47.2 million inhabitants. It
is the only language used in the public administration at the national
level, without any legal norm having declared it as official. Of all the
countries in the world where Spanish or Castilian has predominant
status, Argentina is the one with the largest territorial extension. The
breadth of the country, the existence of different linguistic substrates
produced by the variety of Amerindian languages and the different
contributions of the vernacular languages of the European immigrants of
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, have given rise to
several different dialectal modalities.
Portuguese is spoken by
hundreds of thousands of Argentines and descendants of Brazilians along
the entire border near Brazil.
English is the most well-known
second language in the country, and its teaching is compulsory from
primary school in several provinces. Argentina is the only Latin
American country qualified as a "high aptitude" country in English,
ranking 15th worldwide in 2015, according to a report by the English
Aptitude Index (EF EPI). In 2020, Argentina dropped ten places from its
best position and was ranked 25th, although it still continues to be the
country with the best English proficiency in Ibero-America.
Guarani and Quechua have more than one million speakers throughout the
Northeast and, especially, in the interior of the province of
Corrientes, which in 2004 declared the co-officiality of the Guarani
language for teaching and government acts, although it is not regulated.
Quechua has a striking number of speakers in the province of Santiago
del Estero, where a very different dialect called Quichua is spoken and
also in areas of the province of Jujuy where a variety of this language
is used more similar to that spoken in southwestern Bolivia. On the
periphery of the large urban agglomerations, the product of constant
migrations from northeastern Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia and Peru,
there are speakers of Guarani, Quechua and Aymara.
The living
indigenous languages are mocoví, pilagá, mataco (or wichí) and toba
(qom), of the mataco guaycuru group, Guarani that arrived in the current
Argentine territory around the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries and
was then propagated by the Jesuit European missionaries as a vehicle
language among various ethnic groups of the Northeast and the Littoral
and Quechua (along with aymara) that arrived with the expansion of the
Andean states, especially after the Inca conquest in the fifteenth
century and were used as a vehicle for catechesis in Cuyo and the
Northwest from the Spanish Conquest in the sixteenth century. The
province of Chaco established by Law 6,604 of 2010 (regulated by Decree
257/2010) the co-officiality of the Qom, Wichí and Mocoví languages.
Mapudungun, the language of the Mapuches, is also considered
vernacular because there are ethnohistorical testimonies of its presence
east of the Andes Mountain Range since the fifteenth century. Today it
has speakers in the provinces of Patagonia, reflecting the long and
strong influence of the Mapuche, or Araucanization, on the Argentine
natives of the Patagonian areas and the Pampas plain.
Another
native language is the Argentine sign language (LSA), a language
indicated by the deaf communities that clearly emerged since 1885 and
influenced many other sign languages of neighboring countries.
Various immigrant communities and children of immigrants still maintain
the languages of their region of origin, although this use is lost as
the generations advance. Among the non-vernacular languages are Italian
(including the regional languages of Italy and the Italian dialects),
German (including the Volga German dialect and plautdietsch), Arabic,
French, Portuguese, Russian, Afrikaans, Basque, Galician, Catalan,
Asturian, Yiddish and Hebrew in the Argentine Jewish communities, Welsh
in Chubut, Polish, Mandarin Chinese (mainly from the dialects of Fujian
and Taiwan ), Korean, Japanese (mostly Okinawan speakers), Romanian,
Occitan, Lithuanian, Latvian, Estonian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Croatian,
Czech, Slovak, Finnish, Swedish, Danish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Irish,
Dutch, Hungarian, Serbian, Bosnian, Albanian, Greek, Macedonian,
Bulgarian, Turkish, Armenian, Slovenian and Romani vlax. Many of them
are used daily in the community and family environment, in some cases as
a mother tongue, and are usually used in literary and dramatic works, in
the media and sometimes also in school education. In the case of the
Welsh colony of Chubut, called Y Wladfa, the population developed its
own variety of the language called Patagonian Welsh, which is spoken
communally and taught in bilingual schools, with official support from
the provincial government.
Religion in Argentina is practiced within the framework of the
freedom of worship guaranteed by article 14 of the National
Constitution, although the State recognizes a preeminent character to
the Catholic Church that has a legal status differentiated from that of
other churches and confessions. According to the Argentine Constitution
(article 2), the National State must support it and according to the
Civil and Commercial Code, it is legally assimilable to a non-state
public law entity. This differentiated regime, however, does not elevate
Catholicism to the status of the official religion of the Republic. The
Holy See and Argentina have signed a concordat that regulates relations
between the State and the Catholic Church. The Archbishop of Buenos
Aires, currently Jorge Ignacio García Cuerva, is the Primate of the
Catholic Church in Argentina. The previous Archbishop of Buenos Aires
was Mario Aurelio Poli. Jorge Mario Bergoglio was the former archbishop
until the 2013 conclave elected him as Pope Francis.
Also, in
addition to Catholicism, in Argentina there are adherents of various
religions and beliefs, among the most prominent belonging to the
Protestant churches (evangelicalism, Presbyterianism, Methodism, Baptist
church, Pentecostalism, etc.) and other Christian denominations such as
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Seventh-day Adventist
Church and Jehovah's Witnesses. Other religions of great importance in
the country are Judaism, Islam, African-American religions and Buddhism,
among others.
On the other hand, Argentina is one of the
countries in the region that has a large irreligious population, that
is, that does not adhere to any particular religion or belief. According
to a Gallup survey, Argentina has the third population that declares a
lower importance to religion in their life in Latin America, after Cuba
and Uruguay. Only 63% of Argentines agreed that religion is something
important daily in their life.
The First National Survey on
Religious Beliefs and Attitudes in Argentina conducted in 2008 had
established that 91.1% of the population believed in God in that year,
reducing that percentage to 85% in the 18-29 age group. The Second
National Survey on Religious Beliefs and Attitudes in Argentina carried
out in 2019 showed that belief in God decreased to 81.9% in 11 years.
The recent IPSOS 2023 survey considers that Catholics are 48%,
Protestants 10%, other Christians 5%, those without religion 25%, other
religions 5%, and those who prefer not to say 8%.
Despite its
long Catholic tradition, Argentina has only two recognized saints: the
martyr Hector Valdivielso Sáez (1910-1934) and the diocesan priest José
Gabriel Brochero (1840-1914). There are also widespread popular
religious beliefs, such as the cult of the Deceased Correa, Mother
Maria, Pancho Sierra, Gauchito Gil or Ceferino Namuncurá. The latter
was beatified by the Catholic Church in 2007. The Pachamama, a female
deity related to the "Mother Earth" common to several native peoples,
also has an important presence in the beliefs of the Argentine
population.
The educational system of Argentina consists of four levels: initial,
primary, secondary and higher. Argentine education is governed by the
National Education Law 26.206, which establishes that education is a
public good, a personal and social right of people, of which the State
is the one who must guarantee it. It also determines that it is
mandatory between the ages of four and 17 or 18. The National Education
Law No. 26,206 establishes that the country allocates 6% of its GDP to
education, an index in line with other countries in the region but well
below developed countries.
In 1869, when Domingo Faustino
Sarmiento was President, the first National Census was conducted that
showed the following figures: 82% of the population was illiterate.
Hence, it was Sarmiento himself who initiated a very persistent struggle
with the creation of schools and teacher training; the first came from
the United States to join the tireless struggle for education. The
illiteracy rate was even higher for women, accounting for 81.8 per cent
of the total number of women, compared to 74.9 per cent for men. This
state of affairs led him to promote the Common Education Law N° 1,420,
enacted in 1884 during the presidency of Julio Argentino Roca. This Law
established for the first time compulsory, free and secular education
for all children between the ages of 6 and 14, and established the right
for all inhabitants of the country residing in localities with more than
300 inhabitants to have a public school within their reach. The use of
the white apron as a school uniform, became a paradigm of an ideal of
equality or unity, has always characterized Argentine education. This
law was the beginning of the path to education in Argentina.
Argentina was the second country in Latin America (after Uruguay) to
establish public and quality primary, secondary and university
education. In 1945, during the dictatorial government of Edelmiro
Farrell, the Law on Secondary and Higher Education was enacted, which
established free secondary and higher education in Argentina. The
historical struggle to have a literate population led the country to
have some world-renowned scientists and intellectuals.
Currently,
according to the 2010 INDEC National Population, Household and Housing
Census, the literacy rate stands at 98.1% of the population, which is
relatively high.
According to UNESCO studies, education in
Argentina guarantees equality by possessing institutional
characteristics that prevent the commodification of education, just as
that of Finland has characteristics that favor education in multi-ethnic
population and in the modality of special education, the education of
Argentina favors equity. After completing secondary school - which
graduation is in the month of December - students can continue their
education either at a university or tertiary higher education
institution. According to data from the last census of 2010, the
illiteracy rate is 1.9%, being the second lowest in Latin America.
There are 55 national public universities in Argentina throughout the
territory. and 49 private. The University of Buenos Aires is the
largest in the country and one of the 10 most prestigious in Latin
America, with more than 250,000 students in 2011.
The most outstanding museums are the National Historical Museum of
Argentina and the MALBA, where exhibitions of painting and sculpture are
held. The paleontological museums of Patagonia are also very important
(Trelew, Plaza Huincul, etc.); the Jesuit ruins of San Ignacio, in
Misiones or the San José Palace in Entre Ríos.
Also important are
the memory spaces created where clandestine detention centers operated
during the Videla dictatorship, such as the ESMA in Buenos Aires and La
Perla in Córdoba.
On the other hand, the summer cultural activity
in Mar del Plata and Villa Carlos Paz stands out; and the popular
festivals and festivals such as the Cosquín Festival or the Jesús María
Festival in the province of Córdoba. The Gualeguaychú Carnival is the
largest open-air theatrical show in Argentina and considered the third
most important carnival in the world. Hundreds of national holidays
take place in the country throughout the year.
There are about
100 cinemas and 90 theaters in Buenos Aires, with an abundant list of
shows. The capital of Argentina also distinguishes itself in the
presentation of internationally renowned shows or artists. There are,
among others, cultural centers such as the Borges, the Recoleta or the
San Martín.
The gastronomy of Argentina combines influences from very diverse
cultures, from the native peoples ― corn, potato, sweet potato, cassava,
chili pepper, tomato, bell pepper, beans, yerba mate―, the so―called
"Creole cuisine" influenced by the Spanish colonizers and the Gauchos ―
beef, wine and dulce de leche― and the sub―Saharan African - the
consumption of achuras and mondongo―, to the great migratory flows from
Europe and western Asia from the mid―late nineteenth century, mainly the
Italian ― the pasta and pizza - the Spanish -the potato omelette― and
the Bolivian, with a great impact on horticultural production.
A
determining factor for its gastronomy is that Argentina, due to the
extension and natural fertility of its wide plains, has traditionally
been an important agricultural and livestock producer. Among the main
food products are wheat, beans, corn, sunflower, meat (beef, sheep,
poultry), milk and derivatives, eggs, tea, rice, sugar, olives,
sausages, citrus fruits, apples, grapes, melons, watermelons, peaches,
tomatoes, strawberries, lemons, honey (the world's third largest
producer), edible oils (corn, sunflower, olive), etc. In recent years,
the main rural product of the country is soybeans, mainly destined for
export and used as animal feed.
The large production of beef
determines that this is the one with the highest consumption in the
country. Argentina is one of the countries with the highest per capita
consumption of meat in general and beef in particular, a situation that
has not undergone significant changes over time. A typical Argentine
meal is the asado or parrillada (meat and cow entrails cooked on the
coals), in addition to the empanadas (kind of pies filled with meat or
other ingredients). In addition, it is very common to consume a chorizo
sandwich, called choripan.
Similarly, the huge wheat productions
make the most common bread the white wheat flour bread and largely
explain the success of certain meals spread by the large number of
Italian immigrants, among them the extremely popular Argentine pizza,
characterized by having a thicker dough than the Italian ones.
The production and consumption of milk is very important, consuming
about 240 liters per person per year. The existence of large
availability of milk has led to a high consumption of derived foods such
as cheeses (the country has 8 own cheeses) and dulce de leche, among
others.
Among the sweets, alfajor is a widely consumed product
and produced with multiple regional variables. The same happens with ice
creams, especially with the Italian type, although since the time of the
Spanish colony there was some fondness for sorbet-type ice creams.
Nowadays the consumption of alfeñiques, typical of the Argentine
Northwest, is maintained.
The characteristic drink that Argentina
shares with other neighboring countries is a pre-Columbian infusion of
Guarani origin prepared with leaves of yerba mate (a plant native to the
Plata Basin) called mate. Mate can also be prepared as a tea, being
called in this case cooked mate. The Spanish colonization introduced the
consumption of coffee, which has become massive, generalizing since
colonial times the "cafes" as meeting places. There is also a wide
consumption of tea, either of its classic variety introduced by the
influence of British immigration, as well as digestive herbs from
ancient pre-Columbian traditions such as boldo and peperina. To a lesser
extent, there is the custom of consuming chocolate infusions, also due
to colonial influence.
Among the alcoholic beverages, wine stands
out, of which Argentina is the fifth largest producer in the world, made
mainly in Mendoza, San Juan and other Cordilleran provinces. Among the
characteristic wines of the country, malbec stands out. Other alcoholic
beverages, mostly known in the rural areas of the north, such as cane
and some of pre-Columbian origin, such as aloja, chicha and guarapo (a
variety of mead).
The classic breakfast is bread with butter and
sweet, accompanied by coffee, milk and, eventually, mate; the latter
usually completely replaces breakfast. Dinner is usually held after
21:00 h. There is a tradition of dedicating Sunday lunch to the roast or
pasta, at family gatherings or with friends.
In addition to the
regional differences, there is a very important distinction between
purely urban gastronomy, that of less urban areas and that of more
traditional rural areas. Another set of differentiations is given by the
socio-economic strata. Although there are common Argentine foods
throughout the country (asados and chimichurri, churrascos and
milanesas, dulce de leche, alfajores, meat empanadas, locro, puchero,
carrero stew with noodles, 648 rice stew and mate — especially bitter-,
four main gastronomic regions can be distinguished.
The sport in Argentina is characterized by an extraordinary relevance
of men's football. The first popular sports idol was Jorge Newbery
(1875-1914), who excelled as a fencer, boxer and aviator. The mass
dissemination of the sport occurred in the first three decades of the
twentieth century on the basis of the popular passion for three
activities: football, boxing and motorsport.649 Apart from those
mentioned, sports that reached the top of the world have been developed
in the country such as basketball, paddle tennis, polo, field hockey,
roller hockey, tennis, futsal, blind football, cestoball, road cycling,
golf, pelota paleta (a variant of the Basque pelota), rowing, rugby,
softball, volleyball and yachting.
Other sports of considerable
development are handball, swimming, speed skating, taekwondo, judo,
track cycling, BMX, shooting, fencing, athletics, beach volleyball,
surfing, motor boating, horse riding and turf. In the Andean area of the
south of the country, winter sports are widely practiced, especially
skiing and snowboarding. The national sport is the duck. Other sports of
Argentine origin are the gaucho jineteada, padbol, cestoball, among
others.
Argentina was one of the twelve countries — the only
Ibero-American— that founded the International Olympic Committee (IOC)
in 1894, being represented on the first Executive Board by José Benjamín
Zubiaur, who served in that position until 1907.650 Has hosted the first
Pan American Games in 1951 and also those of 1995, the only edition of
the Pan American Winter Games in 1990, the South American Games of 1982
and 2006, the South American Beach Games of 2019 and the Youth Olympic
Games 2018, the 1978 FIFA World Cup, the 1950 and 1990 Basketball World
Championships, the 1978 Men's field hockey World Championship, the 1981
and 2010 women's field hockey World Championships, the 1970, 1978, 1989,
2001 and 2011 Men's Roller Hockey World Championships, the 1998 Women's
Roller Hockey World Championship, the 1987 and 2011 Polo World
Championships, the 1994, 2007 and 2019 AMF Men's Futsal World
Championships , the 2006 AMF Women's Futsal World Championship, the 1982
and 2002 Men's Volleyball World Championship, the 2001 Men's Rugby 7's
World Cup, the Dakar Rally between 2009 and 2018, the BMX World
Championship of 2000, the Fencing World Championships of 1962 and 1977,
the Wrestling (Freestyle and Greco-Roman) World Championship of 1969,
the Freestyle Canoeing World Championship of 2017, the Equestrian
Jumping World Championship of 1966, the Chess World Championships of
1927 and 2005, the Men's Faustball World Championships of 1986 and 2015
and Women's 1994, the 1994 World Cestoball Championships, the 1997 and
2014 World Speed Skating Championships, the Absolute Shooting World
Championships of 1903 and 1949, the Skeet Shooting World Championship of
1981, the Mobile Target Shooting World Championship of 1981, the Padball
World Cup of 2013, the Padel World Championships of 1994, 1998 and 2004,
the Golf World Cups of 1962, 1970 and 2000, the Sailing World
Championships of 1963 and 2012, as well as several Sailing world
championships depending on the class: Tornado in 2006, Star in 1988,
2005 and 2015, Mistral in 2000, 49er and 49er FX in 2015, 470 in 2016,
Soling in 2001, 2007 and 2018, Snipe in 1985, Optimist in 1992 and 2014,
420 in 2011, Lightning in 1969, J/24 in 1997 and 2011, 29er in 2007 and
2011, class 505 in 1969 and Cadet in 1981, 1991, 2001, 2009 and 2016.
Argentina is the country that hosted the Copa America the most times
with a total of 9 occasions.
Also in Argentina, world youth
championships were organized in various sports such as the U-20 Football
World Cup in 2001 and 2023, the World Youth Rugby Championships in 2010
and 2019, the M19 Rugby World Championship in 1997, the M21 Rugby World
Championship in 2005, the Women's Junior Field Hockey World Cup in 2001,
the Men's Junior Roller Hockey World Championship in 2005, the Men's
U-17 Basketball World Championship in 2018, the 1995 World Men's
Under-21 Handball Championship, the 2011 World Youth Men's Handball
Championship (U19), the 2012 World Youth Men's Softball Championship,
the 1993 Men's U21 Volleyball World Championship, the 2011 and 2015
Men's U19 Volleyball World Championships and the 2017 Women's U18
Volleyball World Championship.
There are also annual
international competitions such as the Buenos Aires Tournament and the
Cordoba Tennis Tournament of the ATP (the only Latin American country
with 2 ATP tournaments), the Argentine Open Polo Championship (the most
important in the world), the Buenos Aires Master of the World Padel
Tour, the Vuelta de San Juan in cycling (the most important cycling
competition in Latin America being the only one to be part of the UCI
ProSeries), the Republic Golf Open, the Argentine Grand Prix, the
Argentine Motorcycle Grand Prix, an annual stages of the Motocross World
Championship and the Superbike World Championship and the Rally de
Argentina. It also hosted the annual stages of the World Touring Car Cup
between 2013 and 2017, the Men's Rugby World Series 7 from 1999 to 2002,
Formula E between 2014 and 2017, the FIA GT Championship in 2008, 2010
and 2011 and Formula 1 in the periods 1953-1958, 1960, 1972-1975,
1977-1981 and 1995-1998. In turn, Argentina is together with Chile the
country that has organized the Latin American Turf Grand Prix the most
times with a total of 11 times, in addition to hosting some of the most
prestigious turf competitions in the region.
Public holidays in Argentina are classified into holidays and
non-working days. These can be national, provincial or municipal, or be
exclusive to a labor or educational branch. National holidays are
mandatory for all employers, while a non-working day is optional for the
employer if he wants to grant it to his employees. They can also be
fixed, transferable for tourist reasons, or fall on different days from
year to year because they are established by other calendars. Holidays
are governed by Decree 1584/2010 and its amending Decree 923/2017.
Likewise, there are several anniversaries not classified as holidays, in
which events of a generally contemporary type are remembered and which
may include social activity or media coverage, but which remain as
working days.
National holidays include Catholic Church
festivities, civic holidays, commemorations and tourist holidays. There
are holidays that always fall on the same day every year and others that
are mobile. Some holidays can be moved to a Monday for tourism promotion
reasons. National non-working days include Good Friday and specific days
for Jewish and Muslim inhabitants. Likewise, the so-called bridge
holidays for tourist purposes have been implemented since 2011 through
Decree 1585/2010.
Transferable holidays whose dates coincide with
Tuesdays and Wednesdays will be transferred to the previous Monday.
Those that coincide with Thursday and Friday will be transferred to the
following Monday.
In this article we will deal only with the
holidays and non-working days corresponding to the federal level (that
is, to the whole country), but there are also provincial, municipal
holidays and non-working days according to different administrative or
institutional instances.