Democratic Republic of the Congo
Africa is the third continent in
the world by territorial
extension and has more than one
billion inhabitants. Surrounded
by the Atlantic Ocean and the
Indian Ocean , in addition to
the Mediterranean Sea to the
north, Africa is a vast land
mass stretching 8,000 kilometers
from north to south and 7,500
from east to east. Despite
having more countries than any
other continent (54 today), this
number does not reflect the
enormous variety of peoples,
races, creeds and cultures that
inhabit these lands and that
explain, in part, the long
history of conflicts that have
affected the human development
of the continent.
Africa
is a land of contrasts: the
enormous desert of the Sahara is
interrupted by the Nile River ,
which is born in the interior of
the continent, covered by
jungles and huge lakes such as
Lake Victoria . Although the
savannah is probably the image
that most foreigners associate
with Africa, there are hundreds
of different ecosystems reaching
even snow in the heights of
Kilimanjaro and some mountains
in South Africa.
The
adventure opportunities in this
continent are enormous: you can
travel the desert in Tuaregs
caravans, cross the jungles in
search of gorillas, make a
safari among lions, sail in
canoes or rest in a paradise
island of the Indian Ocean.
However, not everything is
nature. There are vestiges of
rich ancient cultures (such as
the Egyptian pyramids or
Timbuktu ) and there are still
communities of tribes that
maintain their customs and
traditions. Despite the
generalization of Africa as a
continent plagued by wars,
poverty and corruption, there
are also developing economies
with cosmopolitan cities.
North Africa
Morocco ·
Algeria · Tunisia · Libya ·
Egypt · Sudan · Western Sahara ·
Macaronesia
While the vast
dunes of the Sahara cover most
of its territory, the
Mediterranean coast has a
privileged climate that has
allowed the development of great
cultures. From the markets and
Islamic architecture of
Marrakech, one can jump to
French influence in Tunisia and
Algeria or to Roman ruins in
Libya. Meanwhile, Egypt attracts
millions of tourists who visit
not only the mythical pyramids
of Giza, but also the vibrant
city of Cairo or the beaches of
Sharm el-Sheikh.
Sahel
Mauritania · Mali · Niger · Chad
Although its aridity and ongoing
armed conflict keep sub-Saharan
Africa from tourist
destinations, there are still
some gems to know in the Sahel.
Timbuktu, the ancient capital of
the empire of Mali, and Agadez
were important centers of
medieval caravans that roamed
Africa. Between the steppes and
mirages, one can still recognize
the nomadic cultures of the
Sahel, such as Tuaregs.
African horn
Ethiopia ·
Eritrea · Djibouti · Somalia
(Somaliland)
Ethiopia is
considered the cradle of mankind
and is one of the oldest and
most unique civilizations on the
planet. Surrounded by Muslims,
Ethiopia maintains a primitive
version of Christianity from
which shrines such as Lalibela
arose. The region, mountainous
and arid, has beautiful
inaccessible places.
Unfortunately, violence and
authoritarianism hinder tourism
development in Eritrea, Somalia
and Djibouti.
West Africa
Cape Verde, Senegal, Gambia,
Guinea-Bissau, Guinea, Sierra
Leone, Liberia, Cote d'Ivoire,
Ghana, Togo, Burkina Faso, Benin
The most densely populated
region of Africa stands out for
its symbolic and vibrant cities,
where you can still feel the
African culture, such as Dakar,
Lagos or Abidjan. The region's
rainforests are home to
thousands of animal species,
such as elephants, gazelles,
hippos and monkeys. Cape Verde,
meanwhile, is a good alternative
for seeing spectacular
little-known beaches.
Central africa
Cameroon ·
Central African Republic · Gabon
· Equatorial Guinea · Sao Tome
and Principe · Congo ·
Democratic Congo · Angola
The
heart of Africa is covered in
impenetrable jungle, inhabited
by gorillas, leopards,
crocodiles and hundreds of
unique species that managed to
survive the threat of humanity
thanks to beautiful national
parks such as Garamba. The Congo
River is the foundation of this
region, rich in natural
resources, but for many years
immersed in violence and
interethnic conflicts. The
coastal regions, more
politically stable, present
beautiful beaches to enjoy.
East africa
South Sudan ·
Uganda · Kenya · Tanzania ·
Rwanda · Burundi · Malawi ·
Mozambique
Some of the
continent's most iconic scenes
are in the region. Mount
Kilimanjaro, the highest point
in Africa, dominates the
savannah. Animals such as lions,
gazelles, elephants and rhinos
roam the world famous parks such
as the Serengeti and Masai Mara,
and the volcano park in Rwanda
is the best place to visit the
mountain gorillas. While Nairobi
is a modern city in full bloom,
Mombasa and Zanzibar manage to
blend historical charm and
beautiful beaches.
South
Africa
South Africa · Namibia
· Botswana · Zambia · Zimbabwe ·
Lesotho · Swaziland · St. Helena
Nature is amazing in every
corner of the region. Unique
landscapes such as the Okavango
Delta, which runs into the
Kalahari Desert, the huge
Victoria Falls or the wildlife
of the Kruger National Park,
attract tourists from all over
the world. After the end of
apartheid, South Africa received
a new impetus, becoming one of
the most developed countries on
the continent. Cape Town is
probably one of the most
attractive cities in Africa.
Meanwhile, in the highlands
there are traditional kingdoms
of Lesotho and Swaziland, which
still retain their traditions.
Finally, Mozambique stands out
for its beaches and historic
island, which gives it its name.
Indian islands
Madagascar
· Seychelles · Mauritius ·
Comoros · Mayotte · Meeting ·
Terr. British Indians French
australia
Madagascar, a
product of its isolation from
the rest of Africa, is a place
of unique natural beauty: 90% of
its flora and fauna can only be
found on this island. The
Seychelles and Mauritius
archipelago have become
important tourist destinations
thanks to their beautiful white
sand beaches and clear water. In
Comoros, you can find the same
beaches, but they are much less
popular and more inaccessible.
Meanwhile, Reunion captivates
with its mountainous and steep
landscapes.
Initially, the inhabitants of
ancient Carthage called the word
"Afri" people who lived near the
city. This name is usually
attributed to the Phoenician
afar, which means "dust". After
the conquest of Carthage, the
Romans named the province Africa
(lat. Africa). Later, all known
regions of this continent began
to be called Africa, and then
the continent itself. Another
theory is that the name of the
people "Afri" comes from the
Berber ifri, "cave", referring
to the cave dwellers. The Muslim
province of Ifriqiya, which
arose later on this place, also
retained this root in its name.
There are other versions of
the origin of the toponym.
Josephus, a Jewish historian
of the 1st century, argued that
this name comes from the name of
Abraham's grandson Ether (Gen.
25:4), whose descendants settled
Libya.
The Latin word aprica,
meaning "sunny", is mentioned in
Isidore of Seville's Elements,
volume XIV, section 5.2 (VI
century).
The version about
the origin of the name from the
Greek word αφρίκη, which means
"without cold", was suggested by
the historian Leo Africanus. He
assumed that the word φρίκη
("cold" and "horror"), combined
with the negative prefix α-,
denotes a country where there is
neither cold nor horror.
Gerald Massey, a self-taught
poet and Egyptologist, in 1881
put forward a version about the
origin of the word from the
Egyptian af-rui-ka, "to turn to
face the opening of the Ka." Ka
is the energy counterpart of
each person, and the "hole of
Ka" means the womb or
birthplace. Africa, therefore,
for the Egyptians means
"homeland".
According to the
paleontologist and writer I.
Efremov, the word "Africa"
came from the language of
Ancient Egypt (Ta-Kem) (ancient
Greek "Afros" - a foamy
country). This is due to the
collision of several types of
currents that form foam when
approaching the continent in the
Mediterranean Sea.
Prehistoric period
At the
beginning of the Mesozoic era,
when Africa was part of the
single continent of Pangea, and
until the end of the Triassic
period, theropods and primitive
ornithischians dominated this
region. The excavations carried
out at the end of the Triassic
period testify to the greater
population of the south of the
mainland, and not the north.
Human Origins
Among the
theories of anthropogenesis,
since the 1980s. The most
authoritative theory is the
African origin of man, according
to which the origin of man
occurred in Africa. Here
appeared the first upright
primates - Australopithecus,
from which the genus Homo
emerged here, and Homo sapiens
appeared 280-100 thousand years
ago. Here they found the oldest
remains of the probable
ancestors of the species Homo
sapiens, including
sahelanthropes, Australopithecus
africanus, A. afarensis, Homo
erectus, H. habilis and H.
ergaster. 120-100 thousand years
ago, Homo sapiens in Africa
became anatomically identical to
modern man, and 90-70 thousand
years ago they began to settle
outside Africa - initially in
Asia, and then on other
continents, partially mixing
with other species that had
previously emerged from Africa
genus Homo - Neanderthals and
Denisovans.
Africa during
the Stone Age
The oldest
archaeological finds that
testify to the processing of
grain in Africa date back to the
13th millennium BC. e.
Pastoralism in the Sahara (not
yet a desert) began c. 7500 BC
e., and organized agriculture in
the Nile region appeared in the
6th millennium BC. e.
In
the Sahara, which was then a
fertile territory, groups of
hunters-fishers lived,
archaeological finds testify to
this. Throughout the Sahara
(present-day Algeria, Libya,
Egypt, Chad, etc.), many
petroglyphs and rock paintings
dating from 6000 BC have been
discovered. e. until the 7th
century AD. e. The most famous
monument of the primitive art of
North Africa is the
Tassilin-Adjer plateau.
In addition to the group of
Saharan monuments, rock art is
also found in Somalia and South
Africa (the oldest drawings date
back to the 25th millennium BC).
Linguistic data show that
ethnic groups speaking Bantu
languages (Xhosa, Zulu, etc.)
migrated in a southwestern
direction, displacing the
Khoisan peoples from there (see
Bushmen, Hottentots, etc.).
Bantu settlements have found a
characteristic array of crops
suitable for tropical Africa,
including cassava and yams.
A small number of ethnic
groups, such as the Bushmen,
continue to lead a primitive way
of life, hunting, gathering,
like their ancestors several
millennia ago.
North Africa
By the 6th-5th
millennium BC agricultural
cultures (Tasian culture, Fayum
culture, Merimde) were formed in
the Nile Valley, on the basis of
which in the 4th millennium BC
Ancient Egypt emerged. To the
south of it, also on the Nile,
under its influence, the
Kerma-Kushite civilization was
formed, which was replaced in
the 2nd millennium BC. Nubian
(state formation of Napata). On
its ruins, Aloa, Mukurra, the
Nabataean kingdom, and others
were formed, which were under
the cultural and political
influence of Ethiopia, Coptic
Egypt and Byzantium.
In
the north of the Ethiopian
highlands, under the influence
of the South Arabian Sabaean
kingdom, the Ethiopian
civilization arose: in the 5th
century BC immigrants from South
Arabia formed the Ethiopian
kingdom, in the II-XI centuries
AD there was the Aksumite
kingdom, on the basis of which
Christian Ethiopia was formed
(XII-XVI centuries). These
centers of civilization were
surrounded by the pastoral
tribes of the Libyans, as well
as the ancestors of the modern
Cushite- and Nilotic-speaking
peoples.
As a result of
the development of horse
breeding (which appeared in the
first centuries AD), as well as
camel breeding and oasis
agriculture, the trading cities
of Telgi, Debris, Garama
appeared in the Sahara, and the
Libyan script arose.
On
the Mediterranean coast of
Africa in the XII-II centuries
BC the Phoenician-Carthaginian
civilization flourished. The
neighborhood of the Carthaginian
slave-owning power had an impact
on the Libyan population. By the
4th century BC large alliances
of Libyan tribes were formed -
the Mauretans (modern Morocco to
the lower reaches of the Muluya
River) and the Numidians (from
the Muluya River to the
Carthaginian possessions). By
the III century BC there were
conditions for the formation of
states.
After the defeat
of Carthage by Rome, its
territory became the Roman
province of Africa. Eastern
Numidia in 46 BC was turned into
the Roman province of New
Africa, and in 27 BC both
provinces were united into one,
ruled by proconsuls. The
Mauretanian kings became vassals
of Rome, and in 42 the country
was divided into two provinces:
Mauretania Tingitana and
Mauretania Caesarea.
The weakening of the Roman
Empire in the III century caused
a crisis in the provinces of
North Africa, which contributed
to the success of the invasions
of the barbarians (Berbers,
Goths, Vandals). With the
support of the local population,
the barbarians overthrew the
power of Rome and formed several
states in North Africa: the
kingdom of the Vandals, the
Berber kingdom of Jedar (between
Muluya and Ores) and a number of
smaller Berber principalities.
In the VI century, North
Africa was conquered by
Byzantium, but the position of
the central government was
fragile. The African provincial
nobility often entered into
allied relations with the
barbarians and other external
enemies of the empire. In 647,
the Carthaginian exarch Gregory
(cousin-nephew of Emperor
Heraclius I), taking advantage
of the weakening of imperial
power due to the blows of the
Arabs, broke away from
Constantinople and proclaimed
himself emperor of Africa. One
of the manifestations of the
dissatisfaction of the
population with the policy of
Byzantium was the widespread
dissemination of heresies
(Arianism, Donatism,
Monophysitism). Muslim Arabs
became an ally of heretical
movements. In 647, the Arab
troops defeated the army of
Gregory in the battle of
Sufetul, which led to the
rejection of Egypt from
Byzantium. In 665, the Arabs
repeated the invasion of North
Africa, and by 709, all the
African provinces of Byzantium
became part of the Arab
Caliphate.
Africa south
of the Sahara
In Africa south
of the Sahara in the 1st
millennium BC. e. iron
metallurgy spread throughout the
world. This contributed to the
development of new territories,
primarily tropical forests, and
became one of the reasons for
the settlement of most of
Tropical and South Africa by
Bantu-speaking peoples, who
displaced representatives of the
Ethiopian and capoid races to
the north and south.
The
centers of civilizations in
Tropical Africa spread from
north to south (in the eastern
part of the continent) and
partly from east to west
(especially in the western
part).
The Arabs, who
penetrated North Africa in the
7th century, until the advent of
Europeans, became the main
intermediaries between Tropical
Africa and the rest of the
world, including through the
Indian Ocean. The cultures of
Western and Central Sudan formed
a single West African, or
Sudanese, cultural zone that
stretched from Senegal to the
modern Republic of Sudan. In the
2nd millennium, most of this
zone was part of the large state
formations of Ghana,
Kanem-Borno, Mali (XIII-XV
centuries), Songhai.
South of the Sudanese
civilizations in the 7th-9th
centuries AD the Ife state
formation was formed, which
became the cradle of the Yoruba
and Bini civilization (Benin,
Oyo); neighboring nations also
experienced their influence. To
the west of it, in the 2nd
millennium, the Akano-Ashanti
proto-civilization was formed,
which flourished in the
17th-early 19th centuries.
In the region of Central
Africa during the XV-XIX
centuries. various state
formations gradually arose -
Buganda, Rwanda, Burundi, etc.
Since the 10th century,
Swahili Muslim culture has
flourished in East Africa (the
city-states of Kilwa, Pate,
Mombasa, Lamu, Malindi, Sofala,
and others, the Zanzibar
Sultanate).
In Southeast
Africa, the Zimbabwean
(Zimbabwe, Monomotapa)
proto-civilization (X-XIX
centuries), in Madagascar, the
process of state formation ended
at the beginning of the XIX
century with the unification of
all the early political
formations of the island around
Imerin.
Exploration of
Africa by foreign travelers
In 1416-1433, a Chinese fleet
under the command of Zheng He
visited the east coast of
Africa.
The search by the
Portuguese for a way to India,
the wealth of which was told by
legends, expanded their
acquaintance with the coast of
Africa. In 1498, the Portuguese
Vasco da Gama, completing the
opening of the sea route to
India, circled South Africa,
passed along the eastern coast
of the mainland, crossed the
Indian Ocean for the first time
among Europeans and reached the
shores of Hindustan.
The
arrival of Europeans in Africa
The penetration of Europeans
into Africa began in the
15th-16th centuries; The
greatest contribution to the
development of the continent at
the first stage was made by the
Spaniards and the Portuguese
after the completion of the
Reconquista. Already at the end
of the 15th century, the
Portuguese actually controlled
the western coast of Africa and
launched an active slave trade
in the 16th century. Following
them, almost all Western
European powers rushed to
Africa: the Netherlands, Spain,
Denmark, France, England, and
even little Courland.
The
slave trade with Zanzibar
gradually led to the
colonization of East Africa;
Morocco's attempts to seize the
Sahel failed.
All of
North Africa (except Morocco)
became part of the Ottoman
Empire by the beginning of the
17th century. With the final
division of Africa between the
European powers (1880s), the
colonial period began, forcibly
introducing Africans to
industrial civilization.
The process of colonization took
on a large scale in the second
half of the 19th century,
especially after 1885 with the
start of the so-called race or
fight for Africa. Almost the
entire continent (except for
Ethiopia and Liberia, which
remained independent) by 1900
was divided between a number of
European states: Great Britain,
France, Germany, Belgium, Italy,
Spain and Portugal retained and
somewhat expanded their old
colonies.
The most
extensive and richest were the
possessions of Great Britain. In
the southern and central part of
the continent:
cape colony,
Natal,
Bechuanaland (now
Botswana)
Basutoland
(Lesotho),
Swaziland (now
Eswatini)
Southern Rhodesia
(Zimbabwe),
Northern Rhodesia
(Zambia).
East:
Kenya,
Uganda,
Zanzibar,
British
Somalia.
In the
north-east:
Anglo-Egyptian
Sudan, formally considered a
co-ownership of England and
Egypt.
In the West:
Nigeria,
Sierra Leone,
Gambia
Golden shore.
In the Indian Ocean
Mauritius
(island)
Seychelles.
The colonial empire of France
was not inferior in size to the
British, but the population of
its colonies was several times
smaller, and the natural
resources were poorer. Most of
the French possessions were
located in West and Equatorial
Africa, and a large part of
their territory fell on the
Sahara, the adjacent semi-desert
Sahel region and tropical
forests:
French Guinea
(now the Republic of Guinea),
Ivory Coast (Cote d'Ivoire),
Upper Volta (Burkina Faso),
Dahomey (Benin),
Mauritania,
Niger,
Senegal,
French
Sudan (Mali),
Gabon,
Chad,
Middle Congo (Republic of the
Congo),
Ubangi-Shari (Central
African Republic),
French
coast of Somalia (Djibouti),
Madagascar,
Comoros,
Reunion.
Portugal owned
Angola, Mozambique, Portuguese
Guinea (Guinea-Bissau), which
included the Cape Verde Islands
(Republic of Cape Verde), Sao
Tome and Principe.
Belgium owned the Belgian Congo
(Democratic Republic of the
Congo, and in 1971-1997 -
Zaire), Italy - part of Libya,
Eritrea and Italian Somalia,
Spain - Spanish Sahara (Western
Sahara), Northern Morocco,
Equatorial Guinea, Canary
Islands; Germany - German East
Africa (now - the continental
part of Tanzania, Rwanda and
Burundi), Cameroon, Togo and
German South-West Africa
(Namibia).
The main
incentives that led to the
heated battle between the
European powers for Africa are
considered to be economic ones.
Indeed, the desire to exploit
the natural wealth and
population of Africa was of
paramount importance. But it
cannot be said that these hopes
were immediately justified. The
south of the continent, where
the world's largest deposits of
gold and diamonds were
discovered, began to give huge
profits. But before generating
income, large investments were
first needed to explore natural
resources, create
communications, adapt the local
economy to the needs of the
metropolis, to suppress the
protests of the indigenous
people and find effective ways
to make them work for the
colonial system. All this took
time. Another argument of the
ideologues of colonialism was
not immediately justified
either. They argued that the
acquisition of colonies would
create many jobs in the
metropolitan countries
themselves and eliminate
unemployment, since Africa would
become a capacious market for
European products and huge
construction of railways, ports,
and industrial enterprises would
unfold there. If these plans
were implemented, then more
slowly than expected, and on a
smaller scale. The argument that
the surplus population of Europe
would move to Africa turned out
to be untenable. The
resettlement flows turned out to
be less than expected, and were
mainly limited to the south of
the continent, Angola,
Mozambique, Kenya - countries
where the climate and other
natural conditions were suitable
for Europeans. The countries of
the Gulf of Guinea, dubbed "the
grave of the white man," seduced
few.
World War I
The
First World War was a struggle
for the redivision of Africa,
but it did not affect the lives
of most African countries
particularly strongly. Military
operations covered the
territories of the German
colonies. They were conquered by
the Entente troops and after the
war, by decision of the League
of Nations, they were
transferred to the Entente
countries as mandated
territories: Togo and Cameroon
were divided between Great
Britain and France, German
South-West Africa went to the
Union of South Africa (South
Africa), part of German East
Africa - Rwanda and Burundi -
was transferred to Belgium, the
other - Tanganyika - to Great
Britain.
With the
acquisition of Tanganyika, an
old dream of the British ruling
circles came true: a continuous
strip of British possessions
arose from Cape Town to Cairo.
After the end of the war, the
process of colonial development
of Africa accelerated. The
colonies were increasingly
turning into agricultural and
raw material appendages of the
metropolises. Agriculture is
increasingly export-oriented.
Interwar period
In the
interwar period, the composition
of agricultural crops grown by
Africans changed dramatically -
the production of export crops
increased sharply: coffee - 11
times, tea - 10, cocoa beans -
6, peanuts - more than 4,
tobacco - 3 times, etc. e. An
increasing number of colonies
became countries of a
monocultural economy. On the eve
of the Second World War, in many
countries from two-thirds to 98%
of the value of all exports came
from any one crop. In the Gambia
and Senegal, the peanut has
become such a crop, in Zanzibar
- cloves, in Uganda - cotton, on
the Gold Coast - cocoa beans, in
French Guinea - bananas and
pineapples, in Southern Rhodesia
- tobacco. In some countries
there were two export crops: on
the Ivory Coast and in Togo -
coffee and cocoa, in Kenya -
coffee and tea, etc. In Gabon
and some other countries,
valuable forest species became a
monoculture.
The emerging
industry—mainly mining—was even
more designed for export. She
developed quickly. In the
Belgian Congo, for example,
copper mining increased more
than 20 times between 1913 and
1937. By 1937, Africa occupied
an impressive place in the
capitalist world in the
production of mineral raw
materials. It accounted for 97%
of all mined diamonds, 92% of
cobalt, more than 40% of gold,
chromites, lithium minerals,
manganese ore, phosphorites and
more than a third of all
platinum production. In West
Africa, as well as in most parts
of East and Central Africa,
export products were produced
mainly on the farms of the
Africans themselves. European
plantation production did not
take root there because of the
difficult climatic conditions
for Europeans. The main
exploiters of the African
manufacturer were foreign
companies. Export agricultural
products were produced on farms
owned by Europeans located in
the Union of South Africa,
Southern Rhodesia, part of
Northern Rhodesia, Kenya, South
West Africa.
The Second
World War
The fighting during
the Second World War on the
African continent is divided
into two areas: the North
African campaign, which affected
Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria,
Morocco and was an integral part
of the most important
Mediterranean theater of
operations, as well as the
autonomous African theater of
operations, the fighting in
which were of secondary
importance.
During
the Second World War, military
operations in Tropical Africa
were conducted only in Ethiopia,
Eritrea and Italian Somalia. In
1941, British troops, together
with Ethiopian partisans and
with the active participation of
the Somalis, occupied the
territories of these countries.
In other countries of Tropical
and South Africa, military
operations were not conducted
(with the exception of
Madagascar). But hundreds of
thousands of Africans were
mobilized in the armies of the
mother countries. An even
greater number of people had to
serve the troops, work for
military needs. Africans fought
in North Africa, Western Europe,
the Middle East, Burma, Malaya.
On the territory of the French
colonies, there was a struggle
between the Vichy and supporters
of the "Free France", which, as
a rule, did not lead to military
clashes.
Decolonization
of Africa
After the Second
World War, the process of
decolonization of Africa quickly
began. 1960 was declared the
Year of Africa - the year of the
liberation of the largest number
of colonies. In this year, 17
states gained independence. Most
of them are French colonies and
UN trust territories
administered by France:
Cameroon, Togo, Malagasy
Republic, Congo (former French
Congo), Dahomey, Upper Volta,
Ivory Coast, Chad, Central
African Republic, Gabon,
Mauritania, Niger, Senegal,
Mali. The largest country in
Africa in terms of population,
Nigeria, which belonged to Great
Britain, and the largest in
terms of territory, the Belgian
Congo, were proclaimed
independent. British Somalia and
the Italian-administered Trust
Somalia were merged to become
the Somali Democratic Republic.
1960 changed the whole
situation on the African
continent. The dismantling of
the rest of the colonial regimes
has already become inevitable.
Sovereign states were
proclaimed:
in 1961 the
British possessions of Sierra
Leone and Tanganyika;
in 1962
- Algeria, Uganda, Burundi and
Rwanda;
in 1963 - Kenya and
Zanzibar;
in 1964 - Northern
Rhodesia (which called itself
the Republic of Zambia, after
the name of the Zambezi River)
and Nyasaland (Malawi); in the
same year, Tanganyika and
Zanzibar merged to form the
Republic of Tanzania;
in 1965
- Gambia;
in 1966,
Bechuanaland became the Republic
of Botswana and Basutoland
became the Kingdom of Lesotho;
in 1968 - Mauritius, Equatorial
Guinea and Swaziland;
in 1973
- Guinea-Bissau;
in 1975
(after the revolution in
Portugal) - Angola, Mozambique,
the Cape Verde Islands and Sao
Tome and Principe, as well as 3
of the 4 Comoros (Mayotte
remained the possession of
France);
in 1977 - the
Seychelles, and French Somalia
became the Republic of Djibouti;
in 1980 - Southern Rhodesia
became the Republic of Zimbabwe;
in 1990 - Trust Territory of
South West Africa - Republic of
Namibia.
The declaration of independence
of Kenya, Zimbabwe, Angola,
Mozambique and Namibia was
preceded by wars, uprisings,
guerrilla struggle. But for most
African countries, the final
stage of the journey was passed
without major bloodshed, it was
the result of mass
demonstrations and strikes, the
negotiation process, and, in
relation to the trust
territories, the decisions of
the United Nations.
Due
to the fact that the borders of
African states during the "race
for Africa" were drawn
artificially, without taking
into account the resettlement of
various peoples and tribes, as
well as the fact that the
traditional African society was
not ready for democracy, civil
wars began in many African
countries after gaining
independence. war. Dictators
came to power in many countries.
The resulting regimes are
characterized by disregard for
human rights, bureaucracy,
totalitarianism, which in turn
leads to economic crisis and
growing poverty.
Currently under the control of
European countries are:
Spanish enclaves in Morocco
Ceuta and Melilla, Canary
Islands (Spain),
St. Helena,
Ascension, Tristan da Cunha and
Chagos Archipelago (UK),
Reunion, Eparce and Mayotte
Islands (France),
Madeira
(Portugal).
Africa covers an area of 30.3 million km². The length from north to south is 8 thousand km, from west to east in the northern part - 7.5 thousand km.
For the most part - flat, in the north-west are the Atlas Mountains, in the Sahara - the highlands of Ahaggar and Tibesti. To the east is the Ethiopian Highlands, to the south of it is the East African Plateau, where the volcano Kilimanjaro (5895 m) is located - the highest point on the mainland. To the south are the Cape and Dragon Mountains. The lowest point (157 meters below sea level) is located in Djibouti, this is the salt lake Asal. The deepest cave is Anu Ifflis, located in the north of Algeria in the Tel Atlas mountains.
Africa is known primarily for
its richest deposits of diamonds
(South Africa, Zimbabwe) and
gold (South Africa, Ghana, Mali,
Republic of the Congo). There
are large oil fields in Nigeria
and Algeria. Bauxites are mined
in Guinea and Ghana. The
resources of phosphorites, as
well as manganese, iron and
lead-zinc ores are concentrated
in the zone of the northern
coast of Africa.
Inland
waters
Africa is home to one
of the longest rivers in the
world, the Nile (6,852 km)[11],
flowing from south to north.
Other major rivers are the Niger
in the west, the Congo in
central Africa, the Zambezi, the
Limpopo and the Orange in the
south.
The largest lake
is Victoria (average depth 40 m,
maximum 80 m). Other large lakes
are Nyasa and Tanganyika,
located in lithospheric faults.
One of the largest salt lakes is
Lake Chad, located on the
territory of the state of the
same name.
Africa is the hottest continent
on the planet. The reason for
this is the geographical
location of the mainland: the
entire territory of Africa is
located in hot climatic zones
(including subtropical ones) and
the mainland is crossed by the
equator line. It is in Africa
that the hottest place on Earth
is located - Dallol.
Central Africa and the coastal
regions of the Gulf of Guinea
belong to the equatorial zone,
there is abundant rainfall
throughout the year and there is
no change of seasons. To the
north and south of the
equatorial belt are
subequatorial belts. Here, humid
equatorial air masses dominate
in summer (rainy season), and in
winter - dry air of tropical
trade winds (dry season). To the
north and south of the
subequatorial belts are the
northern and southern tropical
belts. They are characterized by
high temperatures with low
rainfall, which leads to the
formation of deserts.
In
the north is the Sahara Desert,
the largest on Earth, in the
south - the Kalahari Desert, in
the southwest - the Namib
Desert. The northern and
southern extremities of the
mainland are included in the
corresponding subtropical belts.
The flora of the tropical,
equatorial and subequatorial
zones is diverse. Ceiba,
pipdatenia, terminalia,
combretum, brachistegia,
isoberlinia, pandanus, tamarind,
sundew, pemphigus, palm trees
and many others grow everywhere.
The savannas are dominated by
low trees and thorny shrubs
(acacia, terminalia, bush).
Desert vegetation, on the
other hand, is sparse,
consisting of small communities
of grasses, shrubs, and trees
growing in oases, highlands, and
along waters. Salt-resistant
halophyte plants are found in
the depressions. On the least
watered plains and plateaus grow
species of grasses, small shrubs
and trees that are resistant to
drought and heat. The flora of
the desert regions is well
adapted to the irregularity of
rainfall. This is reflected in a
wide variety of physiological
adaptations, habitat
preferences, the creation of
dependent and related
communities, and reproduction
strategies. Perennial
drought-resistant grasses and
shrubs have an extensive and
deep (up to 15–20 m) root
system. Many of the herbaceous
plants are ephemera, which can
produce seeds in three days
after sufficient moisture and
sow them within 10-15 days after
that.
In the mountainous
regions of the Sahara desert,
there is a relict Neogene flora,
often related to the
Mediterranean one, and many
endemics. Among the relic woody
plants growing in mountainous
areas are some types of olive,
cypress and mastic tree. There
are also species of acacia,
tamarisks and wormwood, doom
palm, oleander, date palm,
thyme, ephedra. Dates, figs,
olive and fruit trees, some
citrus fruits, and various
vegetables are cultivated in the
oases. Herbal plants that grow
in many parts of the desert are
represented by the genera
triostnitsa, field grass and
millet. Coastal grasses and
other salt-tolerant grasses grow
along the coast of the Atlantic
Ocean. Various combinations of
ephemera form seasonal pastures
called ashebs. Algae are found
in water bodies.
In many
desert areas (rivers, hamads,
partially accumulations of sand,
etc.), there is no vegetation
cover at all. The vegetation of
almost all areas has been
strongly affected by human
activities (grazing, gathering
useful plants, procuring fuel,
etc.).
A remarkable plant
of the Namib Desert is tumboa,
or velvichia (Welwitschia
mirabilis). It grows two giant
leaves slowly growing all its
life (over 1000 years), which
can exceed 3 meters in length.
The leaves are attached to a
stem that resembles a huge
cone-shaped radish with a
diameter of 60 to 120
centimeters, and sticks out of
the ground for 30 centimeters.
Welwitschia roots go down to a
depth of 3 m. Welwitschia is
known for its ability to grow in
extremely dry conditions, using
dew and fog as the main source
of moisture. Welwitschia -
endemic to the northern Namib -
is depicted on the state emblem
of Namibia.
In slightly
wetter areas of the desert,
another well-known Namib plant
is found - nara (Acanthosicyos
horridus), (endemic), which
grows on sand dunes. Its fruits
constitute a food base and a
source of moisture for many
animals, African elephants,
antelopes, porcupines, etc.
Since prehistoric times,
Africa has preserved the largest
number of representatives of
megafauna. The tropical,
equatorial and subequatorial
belts are inhabited by a variety
of mammals: okapi, antelopes
(duikers, bongos), pygmy
hippopotamus, bushy-eared pig,
warthog, galago, monkeys, flying
squirrels (needle-tailed),
lemurs (on the island of
Madagascar), viverras,
chimpanzees, gorillas and etc.
Nowhere in the world is there
such an abundance of large
animals as in the African
savannah: elephants, hippos,
rhinos, lions, giraffes,
leopards, cheetahs, antelopes
(cannes), zebras, hyenas,
African ostrich. Some elephants,
kaffir buffaloes and white
rhinoceros live only in
reserves.
Jaco, turaco,
guinea fowl, hornbill (kalao),
marabou predominate among the
birds.
Reptiles and
amphibians of the tropical
equatorial and subequatorial
zones - mamba (one of the most
poisonous snakes in the world),
crocodile, python, tree frogs,
poison dart frogs and marble
frogs.
In humid climates,
the malarial mosquito and tsetse
fly are common, causing sleeping
sickness in mammals, including
humans.
Urgent problems of African
ecology
The main
environmental problems of
Africa: desertification is a
problem in the northern part,
deforestation in the central
part.
Geographic research
The peoples of Eurasia have
known about the existence of
Africa since ancient times.
Especially a lot of historical
and geographical information
about the major states of the
Mediterranean is found in the
manuscripts and maps of ancient
Greek and Roman scientists. The
reason for the lack of knowledge
of the interior of the mainland
was the presence of huge
impregnable deserts, which
hindered researchers.
Maiden voyage
The first
voyage around the continent was
made by the Phoenicians around
the 6th century BC.
Ibn
Battuta
In the 14th century,
the Arab traveler Ibn Battuta
explored the Somali Peninsula,
traveled through the territory
of Timbuktu and Mali.
Vasco da Gama
In 1497-1499,
the Portuguese expedition led by
Vasco da Gama circled Africa and
headed from the Somali Peninsula
to India.
David
Livingston
David Livingston
decided to study the rivers of
South Africa and find natural
passages deep into the mainland.
He sailed the Zambezi,
discovered the Victoria Falls,
defined the watershed of Lake
Nyasa, Tanganyika and the
Lualaba River. In 1849, he was
the first European to cross the
Kalahari Desert and explore Lake
Ngami. During his last journey,
he tried to find the source of
the Nile.
Heinrich Barth
Heinrich Barth established that
Lake Chad is drainless, was the
first European to study the rock
paintings of the ancient
inhabitants of the Sahara and
expressed his assumptions about
climate change in North Africa.
Russian explorers
Mining
engineer, traveler Egor
Petrovich Kovalevsky helped the
Egyptians in search of gold
deposits, studied the
tributaries of the Blue Nile.
Vasily Vasilyevich Junker
explored the watershed of the
main African rivers - the Nile,
the Congo and the Niger. In
1926-1927, another Russian
scientist N. I. Vavilov
organized a trip to the
Mediterranean countries of North
Africa. He collected the largest
- more than 6,000 samples -
collection of seeds of
cultivated plants and proved
that Ethiopia is the birthplace
of valuable durum wheat
varieties.
There are 55 countries and 5 self-proclaimed and unrecognized states in Africa. Most of them were colonies of European states for a long time and gained independence only in the 50-60s of the XX century. Before that, only Egypt (since 1922), Ethiopia (since the Middle Ages), Liberia (since 1847) and South Africa (since 1910) were independent; in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), until the 80-90s of the XX century, the apartheid regime, which discriminated against the indigenous population, was maintained. Currently, many African countries are ruled by regimes that discriminate against the white population. According to the research organization Freedom House, in recent years in many African countries (for example, in Nigeria, Mauritania, Senegal, Congo (Kinshasa) and Equatorial Guinea) there has been a trend of retreat from democratic achievements towards authoritarianism.
General economic and
geographical characteristics of
African countries
A feature
of the geographical position of
many countries in the region is
the lack of access to the sea.
At the same time, in countries
with access to the ocean, the
coastline is slightly indented,
which is unfavorable for the
construction of large ports.
Africa is exceptionally rich
in natural resources. The
reserves of mineral raw
materials—ores of manganese,
chromites, bauxites, and
others—are especially large.
Fuel raw materials are available
in depressions and coastal
regions. Oil and gas are
produced in North and West
Africa (Nigeria, Algeria, Egypt,
Libya). Enormous reserves of
cobalt and copper ores are
concentrated in Zambia and the
Democratic Republic of the
Congo; manganese ores are mined
in South Africa and Zimbabwe;
platinum, iron ores and gold -
in South Africa; diamonds - in
both Congo (DRC and RK),
Botswana, South Africa, Namibia,
Angola, Ghana; phosphorites - in
Morocco, Tunisia; uranium - in
Niger, Namibia.
In
Africa, there are quite large
land resources, but soil erosion
has become catastrophic due to
improper processing. Water
resources across Africa are
distributed extremely unevenly.
Forests occupy about 10% of the
territory, but as a result of
predatory destruction, their
area is rapidly declining.
Africa has the highest rate
of natural population growth.
The natural increase in many
countries exceeds 30 persons per
1,000 inhabitants per year. A
high proportion of children's
ages (50%) and a small
proportion of older people
(about 5%) remain.
African countries have not yet
succeeded in changing the
colonial type of sectoral and
territorial structure of the
economy, although the pace of
economic growth has somewhat
accelerated. The colonial type
of the sectoral structure of the
economy is distinguished by the
predominance of small-scale,
consumer agriculture, the weak
development of the manufacturing
industry, and the lag in the
development of transport.
African countries have achieved
the greatest success in the
mining industry. In the
extraction of many minerals,
Africa holds a leading and
sometimes monopoly place in the
world (in the extraction of
gold, diamonds, platinoids,
etc.). The manufacturing
industry is represented by light
and food industries, other
industries are absent, with the
exception of a number of areas
near the availability of raw
materials and on the coast
(Egypt, Algeria, Morocco,
Nigeria, Zambia, and the
Democratic Republic of the
Congo).
The second sector
of the economy that determines
Africa's place in the world
economy is tropical and
subtropical agriculture.
Agricultural products account
for 60-80% of GDP. The main cash
crops are coffee, cocoa beans,
peanuts, dates, tea, natural
rubber, sorghum, spices.
Recently, grain crops have been
grown: corn, rice, wheat. Animal
husbandry plays a subordinate
role, with the exception of
countries with arid climates.
Extensive cattle breeding
prevails, characterized by a
huge number of livestock, but
low productivity and low
marketability. The continent
does not provide itself with
agricultural products.
Transportation also retains a
colonial type: railways go from
raw material extraction areas to
the port, while the regions of
one state are practically not
connected. Relatively developed
rail and sea modes of transport.
In recent years, other types of
transport have also been
developed - automobile (a road
has been laid across the
Sahara), air, and pipeline.
All countries, with the
exception of South Africa, are
developing, most of them are the
poorest in the world (70% of the
population lives below the
poverty line).
Swollen, unprofessional and
inefficient bureaucracies have
emerged in most African states.
Given the amorphous nature of
social structures, the army
remained the only organized
force. The result is endless
military coups. The dictators
who came to power appropriated
untold wealth. The capital of
Mobutu, the President of the
Congo, at the time of his
overthrow was $ 7 billion. The
economy functioned poorly, and
this gave room for a
"destructive" economy: the
production and distribution of
drugs, illegal mining of gold
and diamonds, even human
trafficking. Africa's share in
world GDP and its share in world
exports were declining, output
per capita was declining.
The formation of statehood
was extremely complicated by the
absolute artificiality of state
borders. Africa inherited them
from the colonial past. They
were established during the
division of the continent into
spheres of influence and have
little in common with ethnic
boundaries. The Organization of
African Unity, created in 1963,
realizing that any attempt to
correct this or that border
could lead to unpredictable
consequences, called for these
borders to be considered
unshakable, no matter how unfair
they may be. But these borders
have nevertheless become a
source of ethnic conflict and
the displacement of millions of
refugees.
The main branch
of the economy of most countries
in Tropical Africa is
agriculture, designed to provide
food for the population and
serve as a raw material base for
the development of the
manufacturing industry. It
employs the predominant part of
the region's able-bodied
population and creates the bulk
of the total national income. In
many states of Tropical Africa,
agriculture occupies a leading
place in exports, providing a
significant part of foreign
exchange earnings. In the last
decade, an alarming picture was
observed with the growth rates
of industrial production, which
allows us to speak about the
actual deindustrialization of
the region. If in 1965-1980 they
(on average per year) amounted
to 7.5%, then in the 80s only
0.7%, a drop in growth rates
took place in the 80s both in
the extractive and manufacturing
industries. For a number of
reasons, a special role in
ensuring the socio-economic
development of the region
belongs to the mining industry,
but this production is also
declining by 2% annually. A
characteristic feature of the
development of the countries of
Tropical Africa is the weak
development of the manufacturing
industry. Only in a very small
group of countries (Zambia,
Zimbabwe, Senegal) does its
share in GDP reach or exceed
20%.
A characteristic feature of the integration processes in Africa is the high degree of their institutionalization. At present, there are about 200 economic associations of various levels, scales and directions on the continent. But from the point of view of studying the problem of the formation of subregional identity and its relationship with national and ethnic identity, the functioning of such large organizations as the West African Economic Community (ECOWAS), the South African Development Community (SADC), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), etc. The extremely low effectiveness of their activities in previous decades and the advent of the era of globalization required a sharp acceleration of integration processes at a qualitatively different level. Economic cooperation is developing in new (compared to the 1970s) conditions of the contradictory interaction between the globalization of the world economy and the increasing marginalization of the positions of African states within its framework and, naturally, in a different system of coordinates. Integration is no longer seen as a tool and basis for the formation of a self-sufficient and self-developing economy, relying on its own forces and as opposed to the imperialist West. The approach is different, which, as mentioned above, presents integration as a way and means of including African countries in the globalizing world economy, as well as an impulse and indicator of economic growth and development in general.
The population of Africa is over
1 billion people. Population
growth on the continent is the
highest in the world: in 2004 it
was 2.3%. Over the past 50
years, life expectancy has
increased from 39 to 54 years.
According to the forecast of the
HSBC bank, the population of
African countries will double by
2050.
The population
consists mainly of
representatives of two races:
the Negroid south of the Sahara,
and the Caucasoid in northern
Africa (Arabs) and South Africa
(Boers and Anglo-South
Africans). The most numerous
people are the Arabs of North
Africa.
During the
colonial development of the
mainland, many state borders
were drawn without taking into
account ethnic characteristics,
which still leads to interethnic
conflicts. The average
population density in Africa is
30.5 people/km², which is
significantly less than in
Europe and Asia.
In terms
of urbanization, Africa lags
behind other regions - less than
30%, but the rate of
urbanization here is the highest
in the world, many African
countries are characterized by
false urbanization. The largest
cities on the African continent
are Cairo and Lagos.
The autochthonous languages of
Africa are divided into 32
families, of which 3 (Semitic,
Indo-European and Austronesian)
"penetrated" to the continent
from other regions.
There
are also 7 isolated and 9
unclassified languages. The most
popular native African languages
are the Bantu languages
(Swahili, Congo), Fula.
Indo-European languages
became widespread due to the
era of colonial rule: English,
Portuguese, French are official
in many countries. in Namibia
since the beginning of the 20th
century. there is a compact
community that speaks German as
the main language. The only
language belonging to the
Indo-European family that
originated on the continent is
Afrikaans, one of the 11
official languages of South
Africa. Also, communities of
Afrikaans speakers live in other
countries of South Africa:
Botswana, Lesotho, Swaziland,
Zimbabwe, Zambia. After the fall
of the apartheid regime in South
Africa, Afrikaans was replaced
by other languages (English
and local African). The number
of its carriers and scope is
declining.
The most
common language of the Afroasian
language macrofamily, Arabic, is
used in North, West and East
Africa as a first and second
language. Many African languages
(Hausa, Swahili) include a
significant number of borrowings
from Arabic (primarily in the
layers of political, religious
vocabulary, abstract concepts).
The Austronesian languages
are represented by the
Malagasy language, which is
spoken by the population of
Madagascar Malagasy - a people
of Austronesian origin, who
presumably came here in the
2nd-5th centuries of our era.
The inhabitants of the
African continent are
characterized by the knowledge
of several languages at once,
which are used in various
everyday situations. For
example, a representative of a
small ethnic group that retains
its own language can use the
local language in the family
circle and in communication with
their fellow tribesmen, a
regional interethnic language
(Lingala in the DRC, Sango in
the Central African Republic,
Hausa in Nigeria, Bambara in
Mali) in communication with
representatives of other ethnic
groups, and the state language
(usually European) in
communication with the
authorities and other similar
situations. At the same time,
language proficiency can be
limited only by the ability to
speak (according to UNESCO, 38%
of the adult population in
Africa are illiterate, 2/3 of
them are women).
Against the background of the
global demographic process of
the aging of the population of
the Earth (except for
sub-Saharan Africa) and the
demographic crisis already
caused by it in a number of
countries, both developed and
developing, Africa stands apart.
According to the 2019 UN
forecast, world population
growth will almost come to a
halt by the end of the 21st
century, in large part due to
falling global fertility rates
and an aging population. What
happens in Africa now and in the
coming decades will determine
the size and structure of the
world's population at the end of
the 21st century. Whether the
world's population rises to over
10 billion people will depend on
the speed at which Africa
develops, especially how quickly
women gain access to better
education, women's opportunities
in the labor market, and how
quickly improvements in areas of
children's health. Africa is the
only region in the world that is
projected to experience
significant population growth
before the end of this century.
Africa's population is expected
to increase from 1.3 billion to
4.3 billion between 2020 and
2100. Projections show that this
increase will be achieved mainly
in sub-Saharan Africa, whose
population is expected to more
than triple by 2100. Africa's
population growth is projected
to remain strong throughout this
century. This is also essential
for some specific countries: for
example, in Nigeria (for 2020
206 million people), the UN
predicts a population of 794
million at the end of the 21st
century. Currently, according to
the UN, the total fertility rate
in Africa is still 4.4 children
per woman. It took 42 years
(from 1972 to 2014) for the
global total fertility rate to
drop from 4.5 to 2.5 children.
The UN predicts that for Africa
it will take longer - 56 years
(from 2016 to 2072). There is
reason to be optimistic that
Africa could develop faster than
UN projections suggest.
By 2100, 5 of the 10 largest
countries in the world by
population are projected to be
in Africa. Six countries are
projected to account for more
than half of the world's
population growth by the end of
this century, and five will be
in Africa. The world population
is expected to grow by about 3.1
billion between 2020 and 2100.
More than half of this increase
is expected in Nigeria, the
Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Tanzania, Ethiopia and
Angola, as well as one
non-African country (Pakistan).
By 2100, five African countries
are predicted to be in the top
10 countries in terms of
population. Nigeria is predicted
to surpass the US as the third
most populous country in the
world in 2047. By 2100, half of
the children born worldwide are
expected to be born in Africa.
Africa will overtake Asia in the
number of children born by 2060.
Half of all children born in the
world are expected to be in
Africa by 2100, compared to
three out of ten of all children
born in the world in 2019.
Between 2020 and 2100, 864
million children are expected to
be born in Nigeria, the highest
among African countries. By
2070, the number of births in
Nigeria is projected to exceed
the number of births in China.
Meanwhile, for example, about a
third of the world's children
are projected to be born in Asia
by the end of this century,
compared to about half today and
65% in the period 1965-70.
Islam and Christianity predominate among world religions (the most common denominations are Catholicism, Protestantism, to a lesser extent Orthodoxy, Monophysitism). There are also Buddhists and Hindus living in East Africa (many of them are from India). There are also followers of Judaism and Bahaism living in Africa. Religions brought to Africa from outside are found both in pure form and syncretized with local traditional religions. Among the "major" traditional African religions are Ifa or Bwiti.
Traditional education in Africa
involved preparing children for
African realities and life in
African society. Education in
pre-colonial Africa included
games, dancing, singing,
painting, ceremonies and
rituals. Seniors were engaged in
training; Every member of
society contributes to the
education of the child. Girls
and boys were trained separately
in order to learn the system of
proper gender-role behavior. The
apogee of learning was the
rituals of passage, symbolizing
the end of childhood and the
beginning of adulthood.
With the beginning of the
colonial period, the education
system underwent changes towards
the European one, so that
Africans were able to compete
with Europe and America. Africa
tried to organize the training
of its own specialists.
Right now, in terms of
education, Africa is still
lagging behind other parts of
the world. In 2000, only 58% of
children in sub-Saharan Africa
were in school; these are the
lowest rates in the world. There
are 40 million children in
Africa, half of them of school
age, who are not in school. Two
thirds of them are girls.
In the post-colonial period,
African governments placed more
emphasis on education; a large
number of universities were
established, although there was
very little money for their
development and support, and in
some places it stopped
altogether. However,
universities are overcrowded,
which often forces teachers to
lecture in shifts, evenings and
weekends. Due to low wages,
there is a drain on staff. In
addition to the lack of
necessary funding, other
problems of African universities
are the unregulated system of
degrees, as well as the inequity
in the system of career
advancement among teaching
staff, which is not always based
on professional merit. This
often causes protests and
teachers' strikes.
Africa has firmly established itself as the most conflicted place on the planet, and the level of stability over time here not only does not increase, but also tends to decrease. During the post-colonial period, 35 armed conflicts were recorded on the continent, during which about 10 million people died, most of which (92%) were civilians. Africa has almost 50% of the global number of refugees (more than 7 million people) and 60% of displaced persons (20 million people). For many of them, fate has prepared the tragic fate of the daily struggle for existence.
For historical reasons, Africa can be culturally divided into two broad regions: North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa.
Africans themselves include both
written and oral literature in
the concept of African
literature. In the minds of
Africans, form and content are
inseparable from each other. The
beauty of presentation is used
not so much for its own sake,
but to build a more effective
dialogue with the listener, and
beauty is determined by the
degree of truthfulness of what
is stated.
The oral
literature of Africa exists in
both verse and prose form.
Poetry, often in song form,
includes poems proper, epics,
ritual, laudatory songs, love
songs, etc. Prose is most often
stories about the past, myths
and legends, often with a
trickster as a central
character. The epic of Sundiata
Keita, the founder of the
ancient state of Mali, is an
important piece of pre-colonial
oral literature.
The
first written literature of
North Africa is recorded in
Egyptian papyri, and was also
written in Greek, Latin and
Phoenician (there are very few
sources in Phoenician). Apuleius
and Saint Augustine wrote in
Latin. The style of Ibn Khaldun,
a philosopher from Tunisia,
stands out prominently among the
Arabic literature of that
period.
During the
colonial period, African
literature mainly dealt with the
problems of slavery. Joseph
Ephrahim Caseley-Hayford's novel
Free Ethiopia: Essays on Racial
Emancipation, published in 1911,
is considered the first
English-language work. Although
the novel balanced between
fiction and political
propaganda, it received positive
reviews in Western publications.
The theme of freedom and
independence was increasingly
raised before the end of the
colonial period. Since the
independence of most countries,
African literature has made a
giant leap. Many writers
appeared, whose works were
widely recognized. The works
were written both in European
languages (mainly French,
English and Portuguese) and in
the autochthonous languages of
Africa. The main themes of the
work of the post-colonial period
were conflicts: conflicts
between the past and the
present, tradition and
modernity, socialism and
capitalism, the individual and
society, indigenous peoples and
newcomers. Social problems such
as corruption, the economic
difficulties of countries with
newfound independence, the
rights and role of women in a
new society were also widely
covered. Women writers are now
much more widely represented
than during the colonial period.
Wole Shoyinka (1986) was the
first post-colonial African
writer to win the Nobel Prize in
Literature. Prior to this, only
Albert Camus, who was born in
Algeria, had been awarded this
prize in 1957.
Since
1980, the Nome Award has been
presented for outstanding
literary works.
In general, African cinema is
poorly developed, with the only
exception being the film school
of North Africa, where many
films have been shot since the
1920s (cinemas of Algeria and
Egypt).
So Black Africa
did not have its own cinema for
a long time, and served only as
a backdrop for films shot by
Americans and Europeans. For
example, in the French colonies,
the indigenous population was
forbidden to make films, and
only in 1955 the Senegalese
director Paulin Sumanu Vieira
made the first francophone film
L’Afrique sur Seine (“Africa on
the Seine”), and then not at
home, but in Paris. There were
also a number of films with
anti-colonial sentiment, which
were banned until
decolonization. Only in recent
years, after gaining
independence, did national
schools begin to develop in
these countries; first of all,
these are South Africa, Burkina
Faso and Nigeria (where a school
of commercial cinema has already
been formed, called
"Nollywood"). The first film to
receive international
recognition was the film of the
Senegalese director Ousmane
Sembene "The Black Girl" about
the difficult life of a black
maid in France.
Since
1969 (enlisted the support of
the state in 1972), Burkina Faso
has hosted the largest African
film festival FESPACO on the
continent every two years. The
North African alternative to
this festival is the Tunisian
"Carthage".
To a large
extent, films made by African
directors are aimed at
destroying stereotypes about
Africa and its people. Many
ethnographic films from the
colonial period received
disapproval from Africans as
distorting African realities.
The desire to correct the world
image of Black Africa is also
characteristic of literature.
Also, the concept of
"African cinema" includes films
made by the diaspora outside the
homeland.